Goppelt, Leonhard. Typos: The Typological Interpretation of the Old Testament in the New. Translated by Donald H. Madvig. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982. Translation of “Typos, die typologische Deutung des Alten Testaments im Neuen.” Ph.D. diss. Erlangen, 1939.

Leonhard Goppelt, Typos: The Typological Interpretation of the Old Testament in the New (trans. Donald H. Madvig; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982); trans. of “Typos, die typologische Deutung des Alten Testaments im Neuen” (Ph.D. diss., Erlangen, 1939).

Goppelt, while stating that typology is not to be expected in the Epistle of James, concedes that the typology of the “twelve tribes” occurs in the salutation. {Goppelt 125}

He sites Von Rad’s article in TDNT on Ισρήλ (3.357 ff.) as supporting that the expectation of the reconstituted twelve tribes was common by the time of Christ, even though they were not in existence. {Goppelt 125, n. 95}

He, however, holds that James’ use follows Peter (1 Peter 1:1) in that the twelve tribes refers to either the Christian community at large – led by the twelve apostles, or to the remnant of Israel that has accepted Christ. He states this on the basis that James refers to himself as not only the “servant of God” but also of “the Lord Jesus Christ.” Therefore, James’ community is both the remnant of Israel – God’s people and the community of believers – Christ’s people. He states, “Whoever considers himself to be a part of the true Israel realizes that what follows applies to him.” {Goppelt 125}

Goppelt states that James is parenesis based upon the Sermon on the Mount. He considers the radical ethics and the eschatological orientation to be evidence of this. “James is aware not only that the end is near—but also that the consummation has come—which was decisive for the early Christian point of view.” {Goppelt 125}

Goppelt asserts that James puts forth OT personalities as “types.” {Goppelt 126}

On Elijah he states, “From Elijah they should learn the power of prayer (Jas 5:17f.). But since James is looking primarily at the psychic processes and not at God’s redemptive gifts, there is none of the heightening in redemptive history such as is found in Matt 11:11 and that is essential for typology. For James, as for Judaism and also for 1 Clement, those OT personalities are excellent examples to follow, but they are not types pointing to future consummation.” {Goppelt 126}

Goppelt also asserts that James is careful (as is Jesus) to select OT regulations ignoring the cultic and ceremonial law, “treating these things in the light of the consummation.” {Goppelt 126}

Dittmar, Wilhelm. Vetus Testamentum in Novo: Die alttestamentlichen Parallelen des Neuen Testaments im Wortlant der Urtexte und der Septuaginta. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1903.

Wilhelm Dittmar, Vetus Testamentum in Novo: Die alttestamentlichen Parallelen des Neuen Testaments im Wortlant der Urtexte und der Septuaginta (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1903).

On James 5:17 Dittmar cites 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:1. Regarding ἐνιαυτοὺς τρεῖς καὶ μῆνας ἕξ he also lists as parallel Rev 11:2, 3; 12:6, 14; 13:5 and cites Dan 7:25; 12:7. Interestingly, he does not cite Luke 4:25 as parallel.

France, R. T. Jesus and the Old Testament: His Application of Old Testament Passages to Himself and His Mission. Vancouver: Regent College Publishing, 1992.

R. T. France, Jesus and the Old Testament: His Application of Old Testament Passages to Himself and His Mission (Vancouver: Regent College Publishing, 1992).

On Luke 4:25–27, R. T. France states that “. . . Jesus stands in the line of the prophets through whom God’s purpose has been accomplished. It is this that justifies his unpopular course of action.” France notes that Jesus is not using Elijah and Elisha typologically per se but rather as “precedent.” {France 48}

Hanson, Anthony Tyrrell. The Living Utterances of God: The New Testament Exegesis of the Old. London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1983.

Anthony Tyrrell Hanson, The Living Utterances of God: The New Testament Exegesis of the Old (London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1983).

On James’ use of scripture in general, see pages 146–55 and on Jas 5:17–18, see pages 154–55.

Hanson remarks that at the time of publication (1983) no one in his knowledge had “devoted an entire work to the use of scripture in James. {Hanson 146}

Of interest, he claims that 3:18 is a “midrash on Isaiah 32:15–17.” He notes that James could have seen this as a prophecy of the end time, and he notes the identification of wisdom with the Holy Spirit, as wisdom comes from above in 3:17. He cites Heb 12:11 as a possible parallel “discipline . . . yields the peaceful fruit of righteousness,” along with the Beatitudes in Matt 5:8–9. Ps 34:13–14 could be a “secondary scriptural source” as in Jas 3, control of the tongue is emphasized and then in v. 18 “peace” is emphasized. He cites the rabbinic exegesis of Isaiah 32 in b. Baba Bathra 9a; b. Baba Kamma 17a; Sifre Numbers (pg. 136 in Kuhn’s Tanaatische Midrashim). Given the use of similar material in Hebrews and Matthew, Hanson goes as far as suggesting that James’ use is perhaps an unmarked dominical saying. {Hanson 147–51}