East — West Relations after 1945 up to DetenteBookmark this page
East — West Relations after 1945
Definition: ‘cold war´ describes the conflict between the USSR and the ‘Western Powers´ in the period following WWII / Period of tension characterized by conflict at diplomatic, economic and all levels short of actual armed conflict between the principals on either side.
Origins:
breakdown of wartime co-operation between the Allies (Obvious at Yalta and Potsdam conferences)
possible to trace as far back as 1917 when the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia led to the creation of the world´s first communist state (in conflict with the west)
Didn´t emerge until after WWII b/c the USSR and USA were both isolated after WWI and USSR could not put into practive the ideal of exporting revolution.
Factors which contributed to the outbreak of the Cold War
- Mutual suspicion
- Nature of the official ideology of the USSR: stated the inevitability of conflict with western capitalist states à contributed to suspicions from the west / not certain that Stalin was motivated by this Marxist-Leninist ideology
- Liberal-democratic system of the West was not well understood by Stalin: the allies were unable to commit themselves ‘on the spot´ but had to refer to their parliament or congress, this was evidence for Stalin of lack of faith.
Conflict btw fundamental aims of Stalin and Roosevelt: - Roosevelt had idealistic aims (‘four freedoms´: f. from want, f. of speech, f. of religious belief and f. from fear)
- Stalin had more concrete aims (regaining of Russian territory lost in WWI, control over E.E. …)
- Tendency to interpret the actions of the other in the light of their own priorities.
- Nature of Stalin´s regime: dictatorship of USSR was only justified if external forces threatened the security of USSR, therefore to prevent the danger of being overthrown from within, Stalin had to have external enemies.
- Death of Roosevelt: Stalin had a great deal of respect for him / Truman was far less of an internationalist + far less willing to extent goodwill to the USSR
- Churchill replaced by Attlee.
- The bipolar nature of international relations: USSR and USA were the only real powers in the immediate post-WWII period and as representatives of
- rival social systems they were forced into confrontation.
The Cold War develops — events 1944-1949
The Yalta Conference, February 1945:
Most of the discussions involved the arrangements for Europe following ending of the war since defeat of Nazi Germany was only a matter of time.
The Allies had been united by a negative goal and had not agreed on a positive goal which could continue to unite them once Hitler was not a threat anymore.
The Issues:
Germany:
Germany to be divided into zones of occupation as previously agreed.
Moved away from the ‘Morgenthau Plan´ (reducing Germany to an agricultural country but not alternative was found.
Eliminate or control "all German industry that could be used for military purposes".
Trials of the leading war criminals were agreed.
Commission to be established to determine reparations.
The defeated and liberated states:
Complain by USA and GB that Stalin had not given the co-operation of Soviet authorities in areas occupied by the Red Army.
Declaration on Liberated Europe (what was to be done with Liberated countries)
Agreed that action regarding these areas should be joint action.
Poland:
GB and USA had recognized Polish Gov. in exile while Stalin recognized the Lublin Committee (Polish communists).
Suggested that the 2 groups co-operate and that ‘free and unfettered elections…on the basis of universal suffrage and secret ballot´ would be held.
No decisive conclusion on frontiers but agreed that Soviet frontier would advance westwards and Poland would be compensated from German territory.
Japan:
USSR agreed to enter war against Japan within ‘2 or 3 monts of the ending of hostilities in Europe´
USSR to regain all territory lost to Japan in 1904/05 war and to have the major interest in the railways in Northern China
The Potsdam Conference, July/August 1945:
Truman represented the USA / Churchill was replaced by Attlee / Truman informed Stalin of the US atomic bomb.
Council of Foereign Ministers formed to draft peace treaties w/ defeated enemy states.
Reparations: USSR to begin collecting reparations from its zone / eventually to receive a percentage of reparations from western zones.
Arrangements for trial of Nazi leaders went ahead in the American zone.
Areas of Disagreement:
Stalin wanted the districts of Kars and Ardahan in Turkey.
Stalin demanded trusteeship of one of the former Italian colonies in Africa.
Stalin proposed joint action on Franco (rejected by western powers)
Stalin proposed discussion of situation in Syria and Lebanon but GB and FR considered this to be of their concern.
USA and Allies not able to access areas of Europe occupied by the Red Army.
Stalin moved the frontier of the USSR westwards and handed over to Poland a large area of the Soviet zone of Germany (including land to which the Allies had not agreed)
The breakdown of the alliance followed rapidly as conflicts arose in a number of areas:
Iran:
Northern part of the country to be a Russian sphere of interest / Southern part a British sphere.
During WWII country jointly occupied b/c on a supply route to the USSR.
September 1944: British negotiate an oil concession w/ Iranian Gov. for Anglo-Iranian Oil Company and Standard Oil of USA à Soviet seek a similar concession / Iranians (encouraged by West) refuse.
USSR began to give support to groups opposed to monarchy in Iran / refused to withdraw troops in 1945 / established ‘independent´ republic of Azarbaijani.
January 1946: Iran complains to UN security council
March 1946: USSR agrees to withdraw troops
Iranian forces move to restore Gov. control over ‘Azarbaijani´ and Soviet troops move to the border / both GB and USA threaten to support Iran à USSR backs down.
Turkey:
Teheran Conferency (1943): Churchill stated that USSR was entitled to better access to the world´s principal sea routes.
March 1945: USSR demands that the treaty concerning the use of the Straits be revised / demand for naval base on the Dardanelles / demand for return of the old Czarist provinces of Kars and Ardahan à Turks refused and are supported by GB
August 1946: USA stated that any attack upon Turkey would justify action by Security Council of UN and moved an aircraft carrier force to Istanbul.
Greece:
October 1944: Agreement btw Churchill and Stalin on spheres of influence in Balkans.
December 1944: British begin supporting the Greek monarchy against communist forces backed by Yugoslavia and Albania (suspicion that Stalin was behind the communist moves)
Feb. 1947: GB informs USA of their inability to support the Greek Gov. (USA must step in or there would be a further advance for the communist cause) à
Truman decides to help stating his interpretation of events in what became known as the Truman Doctrine.
Germany:
Allies agree that Germany should not be allowed to become a threat to them again / little agreement as to how this ought to be done.
Early problems caused by the French (b/c de Gaulle had not been invited to any of the ‘Big Three´ conferences and did not feel bound by any of the agreements reached there)
More serious differences soon arise btw USSR and western allies:
Reparations:
Carrying out the Potsdam agreement proved difficult b/c of the v. poor state of the German economy.
USA + GB were having to send reparations from their zones to the Soviets (unable to sell industrial produce to pay for imported food)
Soviets not sending the agreed food supplies from their largely agricultural sector
Spring 1946: USA + GB stop reparation deliveries to the Soviet zone.
Sept. 6th 1946: Byrnes (US Secretary of State) acknowledges that Potsdam agreement is not working and proposed that GB and USA merge their zones to form one economic unit. à done in January 1947 w/ the French zone joining in 1949.
Political developments:
Under Potsdam agreement, setting up of ‘free democratic and anti-fascist´ parties had been provided for.
June 1945: Soviets allowed formation of political parties / in contrast with developments in the west (i.e.: French still talking of annexing the Saar)
December 1945: talks of merger btw Communist and Social Democrats à referendum in March 1946 but rejected.
Soviets went ahead with the merger in their own zone.
German political leaders in the west decided to form groups within the other zones: Soviet attempt to control German political parties had failed.
June 1947: anti-Soviet Reuteur elected as Mayor of Berlin / Not recognized by Soviet General Kotikov à parties were henceforth to develop separately in the Soviet zone and the western zones.
The Council of Foreign Ministers:
March 1947; fourth session of the council began in Moscow: made no progess b/c of the announcation of the Truman Doctrine à conference broke up.
Eastern Europe:
By May 1945 Red Army occupied a vast area of E.Europe / ‘Declaration on Liberated Europe´ was the only guarantee that the Soviet area would not be used to strengthen USSR
Churchill had sought to improve the western position by:
Urging USA to order US armies to advance as far to the east as possible before ending of the war à refused by Roosevelt who was suspicious of Churchill´s motives.
Attempting to convince the USA that its planned withdrawal of troops from Europe should not take place so long as the Red Army had several million men under arms.
Churchill stated: "An iron curtain is drawn down upon their front. We do not know what is going on behind."
Between 1945-47 the USSR strengthened the position of Communist parties in E.E. whilst denying western officials access to the area.
Policy of Containment:
by 1947 the USA began to reshape its policy to meet what it saw as the growing influence of the Soviet Union.
March 1947: Truman Doctrine.
June 1947: USA made known the means by which the above policy would be implemented: Marshall Aid.
It was hoped that the root cause of discontent (need for E. recovery) and spread of communism would be halted.
USSR attended initial meetings but soon withdrew and obliged E.E. states to do likewise.
End August 1947: USSR replied to what it saw as a clear anti-Soviet measure by signing trade agreements with several states thus tying them into the soviet economic system (Bulgaria, .CZ, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Poland and Rumania)
June 1947: article by a US State Department Soviet specialist stated that the USA must develop "…a policy of firm containment, designe to confront the Russians with unalterable counter force at every point where they show signs of encroaching upon the interests of a peaceful and stable world…" / This involved:
Decision to maintain large US forces in Europe in peacetime.
Establishment of a peacetime alliance (NATO) with a strong US commitment.
The Soviet Response:
Tightened its grip upon the states of E.E. (1948 coup brought the last of the E.E. states, .CZ, under firm communist control)
Bilateral trade agreements.
Cominform established to strengthen links btw various communist parties.
Stated that WWII had been fought by USA and GB to eliminate German and Japanese industrial competition and warned that the world was now divided into "…two fronts, one imperialist, the other socialist and democratic…"
The Berlin Blockade: attempt to eliminate the only remaining area of western influence behind the ‘iron curtain´ à failed.
Europe Divided
Europe by 1949 was divided into two rival camps each with their own political, economic and military alliances:
Economically:
Western countries united through O.E.E.C. (initially formed to facilitate distribution of Marshall aid)
Countries of E.E. linked to USSR economically by bilateral trade agreements and Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance — Jan 1949)
Militarily:
Brussels Treaty (March 1948) allied GB, FR, and Benelux countries in the event of an attack / N.A.T.O. (April 1949) wider alliance.
Soviet countries united through the Warsaw Pact (1955)
Politically:
In western Europe various organizations were established to attempt to achieve greater unity.
In E.E. the USSR established Cominform to link together the various communist parties.
The effects of the development of the Cold War
International relations were dominated by the Cold War and all conflicts tended to be seen in terms of the struggle btw the USA and the USSR à international relations were bipolar.
Europe was divided with a clear line of demarcation btw the capitalist west and the communist east.
Germany was not united: instead western and eastern zones gained independence separately and were not prepared to recognize each other.
No peace treaty was signed with Germany: sense of insecurity amongst countries of E.E. (this was solved in 1975 at the Helsinki Conference)
Unity in western Europe was encouraged by the Soviet threat and USA who hoped that western European states would play a greater part in their own defences.
USSR tightened its control over the E.E. states à setting up of one party states.
USA abandonned its policy of avoiding peacetime commitments: it was instrumental in setting up of NATO and other regional forces.
USA adopted the policy of containment à led to US involvement all over the world assuming that any communist group was acting upon the orders of Moscow (i.e.: Korea, Vietnam) à USA became the ‘world policeman´.
UN was never able to fulfil the role which Roosevelt had envisaged (peaceful settlement of international disputes) b/c of the veto power of both the USA and USSR.
The Cold War spreads to the East
By 1949, the position in Europe was static: the last attempt to change the balance (Berlin Blockade) had failed
With the advent of nuclear weapons neither side was prepared to risk open conflict in order to change the position.
However, events in the East brought that area into the Cold War conflict:
The Communist takeover of China:
1927-1937: civil war between the Kuomintang (nationalist forces of Chiang Kai-Shek) and the Chinese Communist Party (Mao Tse-Tung)
1937-1945: uneasy truce to allow both to fight the common Japanese enemy.
By 1945 the scene was set again for a renewal of the civil war.
Truman sent General Marshal to presuade both sides to form a coalition Gov. but Chiang Kai-Shek didn´t wish to share power and the Communist party had grown in strength and was not settling for less than real power sharing.
The US attitude:
USA had great interest in the future of China: supported China against its division by the Great Powers at the end of the 19th century, and against Japan.
USA was aware of the corruption of Chiang Kai-Shek´s regime and of its lack of support.
USA was aware that becoming involved in China would be an enormous undertaking (size of country, population, and backwardness)
As the Cold War developed in Europe, the USA became increasingly concern at the prospect of a victory for the forces of Mao Tse-Tung.
USA thus provided some limited support for Chiang Kai-Shek but in 1949 the remnants of the Kuomintang forces abandoned the mainland of China and fled to Taiwan (where they were protected by the US navy)
Victory of the C.C.P. in the Chinese civil war coincided w/ the most intense phase of the Cold War in Europe. The consequences were:
USA assumed that the takeover of the communists in China was inspired by Moscow. (in fact Stalin had urged Mao to come to terms w/ nationalists b/c he didn´t feel that a communist revolution had a chance of succeeding)
USA became increasingly eager to accept the policy of containment.
Considerable opposition in the USA to the recognition of the new regime in China.
Many people felt that China had been ‘lost´ b/c the USA had not taken the necessary steps to support the Gov. of Chiang.
à McCartyism (purges of Gov. / ‘Red Scare´)
The Korean War 1950-1953
Korea under control of Japanese since late 19th century.
Cairo Conference (1943) suggested independence of Korea to follow defeat of Japan.
After Aug. 1945 (Hiroshima and Nagasaki), the Soviet forces occupied the area to the north of the 38th parallel and the US forces the area to the south.
Development of the Cold War precluded co-operation btw the occupying forces.
By end 1948 there were two Koreas: the Republic of Korea (South) and the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea (North).
December 1948: Soviet and US forces withdraw from their zone of occupation.
The ‘defense perimeter´:
Jan. 1950: Secretary of State (Dean Acheson) oulined a perimeted beyond which the USA would not tolerate the advance of communism (however, he failed to include South Korea within)
Why did he not include S.K.?
Budgetary reasons: USA did not wish to involve itself to any great extent in the defense of Korea.
Oversight on the part of the US secretary.
USA did not feel that there was any threat to South Korea.
Exclusion of S.K. seems to have encouraged N.K. and USSR to believe that USA would not resist measures to unite two Koreas under communist rule.