Makerere Key Note Paper

The Evolution of the Fisheries Water/Landscape in Uganda: Challenges and Opportunities for further interventions

MAKERERE KEY NOTE PAPER

John S. Balirwa

National Fisheries Resources Research Institute (NaFIRRI)

30th September 2014

Overview

This address is dedicated to the memory of P.H. Greenwood, whose outstanding work on evolution and fishes, as described in the words of Rosemary McConnell “Can never be repeated …… so many of the species he described have now vanished”. From the early 1960s while working between the British Museum (Natural History), London and the former East African Fisheries Research Organisation (EAFRO), Jinja, Uganda i.e. the present-day National Fisheries Resources Research Institute (NaFIRRI), P.H. Greenwood wrote “The Pliocene and Pleistocene (together of about 11,000,000 years’ duration) were critical phases in the development of the present-day lakes and the evolution of their fish faunas from the more widely distributed African species which first colonized them. In east Africa during this period there was considerable volcanic activity and earth movements were intense. These disturbances, together with phases of increased rainfall or aridity, must have affected considerably the general topography, the sizes and the drainage systems of the lakes. Once spatial isolation had been effected by these agencies, the stage was set for the evolutionary processes which have led to the development of fish faunas peculiar to the several lakes and river systems. The fishes of different lakes may be isolated by various natural barriers which efficiently prevent the interchange of species, even though the lakes may be interconnected. Predominant amongst these physical barriers are the Murchison Falls, which isolate the Lake Victoria fishes from those of Lake Albert and the Nile, and the Semliki Rapids which though less spectacular nevertheless separate the Lake Edward and the Albertine Nilotic faunas. On the other hand, although the Ripon Falls did provide some degree of separation between Lakes Victoria and Kyoga, their efficiency was less marketed; there are only slight differences between the faunas of the two lakes”. These statements coming from a Scientist of that time show that research of the time required broad-minded people who probably were well schooled. Here we should primarily reflect on the last 50 years of research and project the future.

Introduction

Ecosystems (ecological systems) consist of living and non-living components interacting as complex integrated functional units. In more basic expressions, an ecosystem is defined as the interaction between and within biotic and abiotic factors in a particular area. However, ecosystems are dynamic and occur at different spatial and temporal scales.

This outline about Uganda’s aquatic ecosystems looks more at fisheries and fisheries research but cannot be taken in isolation of the other biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystems. It is emphasized that interdependence of factors implies that events at one scale affect what happens at every other scale with varying levels of impact.We should therefore think of how best to continuously create expertise that can address the different factors and still bring them into focus of ecosystem thinking in fisheries and fisheries research.

Ecosystems provide many goods and services that are of vital importance for the functioning of the biosphere, and delivery of tangible benefits to human society. These ecosystem services have been describedas the lifeblood of human societies, economies and identities around the world. These services can be categorized as provisioning (direct provision of livelihood supporting products (e.g. purification, detoxication, climate modulation, water retention, mitigation of drought, floods and other natural hazards); cultural (i.e. spiritual enrichment or satisfaction, aesthetic values attached to ecosystems, social amenities derived, etc.); and supporting services (e.g. soil formation, nutrient recycling, growth, primary and secondary production, etc.

The range of goods and services that Uganda’s ecosystems provide underscore the role of ecosystems in economic, social, cultural and political transformation of the country. Ideally, ecosystems are supposed to be in balanced.However, ecosystems are rarely in balance, and have especially been affected by human actions. According to UNEP(2004) report, Uganda’s ecosystems are under stress principally as a result of deforestation, over fishing, species introductions, water pollution, eutrophication, biodiversity loss, wetland destruction, poaching, the rapid population growth that has persistently led to increased demand for human settlements and agricultural land. In the process, the quality, adequacy and diversity of the ecosystems has declined significantly. This intricate relationship between ecosystems and human well-being remains unclear to many, and this limited understanding has contributed to further degradation. Counteracting this vicious trend requires a complete understanding of all the interrelationships between plants, animals and atmosphere in the system and hence research to generate this information.

In grappling with limited understanding of ecosystems, can we claim to sustainably manage the fisheries of Uganda? Have we been able to do that? With 20% of its surface covered by water, Uganda should by now have a wealth of experience in water resources management. If the answer is NO or partly YES, these remarks should stimulate discussion of how university-research linkages can be used to project future partnerships as existed during the time of Humphrey Greenwood.

The fisheries water/landscape of Uganda

Uganda has a freshwater surface area, including lakes, rivers and wetlands that cover 18% of the total area. Apart from the major lakes (Victoria, Kyoga, Albert, George, Edward), there are over 160 minor water bodies, covering 1,707 km2. There are also over 1,000 dams and valley tanks for both aquaculture and livestock watering. The Nile Basin constitutes about 98% of the total area of the country. Over the long period, rainfall patterns have been generally stable ranging from 750 mm/year in the northeast to1,500 mm/year in the high-rainfall areas around the shores of Lake Victoria and around the highlands. Uganda has been called the water tower of Central Africa. The total renewable water resources of the country are estimated at 66 km3/year, being 39 km3/year internal renewable resources and 27 km3/year external, which comprise inflow from Lake Victoria (25 km3/year) as well as inflow via Lake Edward and Lake Albert from the Democratic Republic of Congo.The water bodies of Uganda are the production base for fisheries and are fringed in many parts by extensive wetlands of vital ecological functions with important plant and animal life. The wetlands are buffer zones against siltation, filter pollutants and other wastes entering the lakes; hold and regulate the flow of water; provide raw materials for construction; provide a suitable habitat for a wide variety of plants, wildlife, birds, fish and plants of economic, medicinal and food value. These water bodies provide water for irrigation, hydropower generation, industrial and domestic use, and modulate local climate. Therefore, the role of fisheries research goes beyond fish as a commodity.

Uganda’s fisheries resources arediverse in terms of aquatic ecosystems as well as species biodiversity and are readily recognized small-scale artisanal capture types. In comparison, semi-industrial to industrial fisheries are mostly operated in marine ecosystems, are characterized by high capital investments, high technology, low labour inputs and also rely on large fleets of trawlers that spend extended periods at sea, and fish processing may start on board the fishing vessels. Uganda’s fisheries can thus be described on the basis of water body to include: lake (e.g. Victoria, Albert, Kyoga), riverine and flood plain fisheries (e.g. Kagera, Victoria Nile, Albert Nile), wetlands, reservoir and aquaculture fisheries. Some fisheries are recognized either by the dominant harvested species (e.g. tilapia, Nile perch, catfish, mukene fisheries) or the dominant harvesting gear in use (e.g. gill-net, long-line, seine-net, basket) or levels of management interventions. Lake category fisheries can further be sub-divided into various types depending on geographical features such as size (e.g. the Great Lakes of Africa fisheries that include Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Edward and Albert) or limnological features (e.g. salt content, trophic status, catchment features) are also related to different types of fisheries. There are thus small sized fisheries such in crater lakes among these recognized as small water bodies (SWB) and satellite lakes that occur in the catchments and are part of the geographical origin of the larger lakes. Geographical location and depth can also describe the type of fisheries (e.g. the fisheries of the deep Rift Valley Lake Albert) and depth (e.g. the fisheries of shallow Lakes Victoria and Kyoga). However, in comparison to other agricultural sectors, capture fisheries have historically been generally much under-represented in national development policies, in part due to their open-access and the old perception of “hunting and gathering” associated with wild life in unprotected areas.

The socio-economic importance of Uganda’s fisheries from national, regional and global perspectives

There are at least 500 species of fish in these water bodies. Fishproduction from these waters has created a robust and lucrative industry compared to other agriculture sectors, and made Uganda the leading country in Africa in inland fisheries production (c. 450,000 mt annually) with potential to expand by a factor of two to three of the current fish production levels. Fisheries are thus a strategic sector for the country. From the current research perspective, Uganda’s water bodies are predicted to become the future sites of farmed fish (i.e. cage culture).

The fisheries as a strategic sector is a prominent component of the Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP) for Uganda, and is among the top priority sectors for public investment in the National Development Plan (NDP) and the MAAIF Development Strategy and Investment Plan (DSIP). The DSIP identifies research and fisheries management services as major interventions to increase the productivity and profitability from the sector geared toward addressing the objectives of the NDP. Fisheries ecosystems in ugnda play a significant role in the economy, contributing 12% of the national Agricultural GDP and remain the leading source for household dietary animal protein in the country. Since independence the fisheries sector has rapidly expanded from under 100,000 tons to currently about 660,000-700,000 tons of annual national fish production. Currently, this annual national fish production is contributed by 375,000 tons as food or table size fish from capture fisheries; 100,000 tons as fish food from aquaculture; and 200,000 to 225,000 tons as small fishes production utilised mainly inprocessing animal and human feeds. The fisheries sector has expanded from supporting under 120,000 and 20,000 t at at independence to over 6 million livelihoods and to nearly 1.5 million people by 2010, in direct employment respectively.. The total value of the fisheries production at farm gate price of US$ 1.30 per kilogram of fish, is US$ 0.91 Billion of which, US$ 0.20 Billion comes from regional and international fish exports and e the remainder (US$ 0.70 Billion) is out of local consumption. The major destinations for regional exports include DR Congo, Kenya, South Sudan, Sudan, Central Africa Republic, Zambia, South Africa and Egypt. International destinations include the European Union, Israel, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Japan and USA. With 12% of the Agricultural GDP, it is clear the sector remains an important player in the structural transformation of the economy through value addition, export growth, and in providing employment, let alone, its recognized leading role in provision of household dietary animal protein in the country.

The main 12 commercial species of fish (commodities in the agricultural sense) in Uganda are Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), Nile perch (Lates niloticus), Mukene(Rastrineobola argentea), Semuntundu (Bagrus spp), Catfish (Clariasgariepinus), Tiger fish (Hydrocynus spp), Lung fish, Mamba (Protopterus aethiopicus) and Angara (Alestes spp) . There were a number of fish species such as the native tilapiines (Oreochromis esculentus and O. variabilis) of Lakes Victoria and Kyoga and the riverine Ningu (Labeo victorianus) which were originally important and highly cherished food fishes but have either completely disappeared or their populations have been reduced to uneconomic levels due unsustainable fishing practices and environmental degradation. Aquaculture research has shown potential for re-stocking, recovery and culture of these species for fish production and ornamental industry. Significant untapped potential for fisheries growth remains. What skills are needed?

The first 60 years of formal fisheries management left challenges for the new country at independence in 1962 including inadequate local capacity for fisheries research, meeting the fast growing demand for fish, monitoring and management of aquatic ecosystems for sustainable fisheries production, declining fisheries biodiversity owing to fish species introductions, and a changed and fast expanding fishery with no information on its natural processes nor management. With a contribution of 12 percent to the Agricultural GDP it is clear the sector remains an important player in the structural transformation of the economy through value addition, export growth, and employment. However, fish food prices in Uganda have increased, but not as sharply as in neighboring countries.

Over the last 50 years, NaFIRRIhas become recognized globally as the leading sub-Saharan public agricultural research organization that is highly regarded internationally for its quality work. This is in large part due to the very strong foundation laid by young graduates of the time especially those from Cambridge and the Freshwater Biological Association. In the fisheries, the National Fisheries Resources Research Institute (NaFIRRI) has expanded its scope to applied aspects of research in evolution, ecology, conservation, exploitation, stock monitoring for management of fisheries biodiversity and aquaculture. Most prominent of the works is on evolution and conservation of cichlid fishes of Lake Victoria and the introduction and impact of the Nile perch into Lakes Victoria, Nabugabo and Kyoga. Through fisheries research Uganda has built a comparatively very successful and expanded fisheries sector over the same period that has seen many of the region’s inland fisheries and indeed many other fisheries across the globe significantly reduced and in some cases completely collapse. Key debate and an aspect of global concern has been the issue of fisheries biodiversity losses with the expanded fisheries, and whether country and East Africa in general suffered irreparable damage in seeking a socioeconomically more robust fisheries sector. It was and remains a major question whether or not management hurried in transplanting and introducing fish species across the country without sufficient research and guidance from the then scientists. However with rapid and astronomical rise in the socioeconomic significance of the fisheries sector that is dominated by the introduced Nile perch and Nile tilapia, the focus of public fisheries research changed to search for technologies for ensuring sustainable exploitation and efficient utilization of the new fisheries so as to meet the fast growing demand for fish. Fisheries research therefore had to change from preoccupation with monitoring fisheries exploitation and resource conservation to investigating measures for stabilization and expanding of fisheries production – hence the focus on species level management and development plans and developing the commercial aquaculture potential of the vast natural fisheries biodiversity of the country.

The role of fisheries research

Fisheries Research has actively participated in the rapid expansion and realization of the fisheries production potential in the country through taking lead in bio-manipulation of natural fisheries water bodies and development of aquaculture in addition to the primary role of monitoring fisheries resources base and impact of the fishing activities. At the same time research has also served as vehicle and strong advocate for sustainable utilization and conservation of fisheries resources, providing information and guidance for efficient and responsible exploitation, developing of appropriate aquaculture management and production technologies, and engaging fishing communities and stakeholders through action research to foster co-management arrangements between resource users and public resource managers. Unfortunately the last 50 years have also been a period when key changes deemed detrimental to the continued expansion of the fisheries have occurred. There has been significant loss of fisheries, change in fisheries environment such as from predominantly diatomous Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga waters to blue green algal dominated waters, increased levels of poverty and malnutrition in lake side communities, noticeable pollution of the waters, nutrient loading and increased siltation, explosion of macrophyte aquatic plants/weeds, increased human settlement and related activities in the catchment areas of key fisheries water bodies, and fisheries socioeconomics.