AP ART HISTORY Mrs. Lawson
Chapter 8 – Islamic Art & 9 Art of India Due: (BOP)______
CHAPTERS 8 & 9
ISLAMIC ART & ART OF INDIA
ANALYSIS PACKET
DIRECTIONS: Use the attached worksheets to record information from the reading homework assignments. On the due date, present each assigned analysis worksheet to Mrs. Lawson for a Reading-check grade. Add information from class discussion to the worksheets or attach notes taken in class. Upon completion of the chapter, place analysis packet into the turn-in drawer for a completed-packet grade.
ARCHITECTURE
SCULPTURE
PAINTING
ART BEYOND THE EUROPEAN TRADITION
AP Exam
It is important to understand what the AP Art History committee means by “art beyond the European tradition.” According to the Course Description booklet, artworks from the ancient Near East, Egypt, Middle East, Africa, the Americas, & Asia are considered non-Western art cultures. Each of these cultures created a vast amount of art that could easily generate a full exam, but so far have not. Previous AP Art History exams have typically focused on Egyptian & Islamic art and included only 3 to 5 multiple-choice question on the last three cultural areas. Additionally, students must use an example of art from beyond the European tradition to illustrate one of the (25-point) 30-minute essay questions. Because of the weight placed on these last three non-Western cultures, we will spend a short amount of time discussing them. We will discuss key points asked on recent exams and aesthetics as they influenced western art and artists.
ISLAMIC ART
Islamic art is considered “beyond the European tradition,” because Islam began in the Middle East. Historically, test writers have not consistently asked question on Islamic art, but non-European based art does account for 20 percent of the points on the test, and Islamic art provides more than sufficient material from which to create questions. Substantive questions have been asked about Islamic architecture, including multiple-choice and slide-based short essay questions about mosques.
Islam & Its Rules for Art
Time- c. 800 CE same time as Western Art traditions: Byzantine Period (Chapter &) & Hiberno-Saxon (Chapter 14) art
Religion- Islam was monotheistic
Muhammad considered the last in a succession of prophets (p.341)
Upon the appearance of the angel Gabriel to him, the merchant al-Amin became Muhammad, the messenger of God.
-Born c.570 CE in Mecca / died 632 CE-Age of 40 receives calling as a prophet of a new religion
-Recognized Christians (recognized Jesus – but not as divine), Jews and Arabs as descendants of Abraham
-Only Muhammad’s teachings preserve God’s (Allah) true message-Muhammad was not divine =a prophet
-Muslims date the beginning of their history to the birth of the Prophet Mohammad in Mecca in 570 CE
The founder of Islam was the prophet Muhammad. He began to preach publicly about the religion in 613 CE, after he experienced a series of visions while meditating. Muhammad claimed that there was only one God (Allah) and that he was God’s chosen messenger to the people. The religion Muhammad espoused, which became known as Islam, was a departure from the religion of the indigenous Arabs, most of whom were polytheists. Initially, Muhammad’s teaching received limited support and was generally greeted with hostility. However, Islam gradually grew to encompass a large part of Saudi Arabia, including the holy cities of Mecca & Media. After Muhammad’s death, caliphs (his successors) continued to spread the religion throughout the Middle East, the former Persian Empire, northern Africa, and even across the Strait of Gibraltar into Spain. Through evangelism, central Asian tribes such as the Moguls & Ottoman Turks converted to Islam. The Moguls brought Islam into the Indian subcontinent, and the Ottomans continued the spread of the religion through the Anatolian Peninsula and into the Balkan Peninsula, replacing the Christian Byzantine Empire.
Important to understand impact of Islam / spread rapidly
-By 8th century conquered North Africa and Spain (785 CE)
-Constantinople fell in 1453 CE
-Islam (caliphs) established new social order and took complete charge of secular (of this world) and spiritual affairs
-Islam sponsored advanced scholarship and translation of Greco-Roman texts from all areas of learning
Through divine inspiration, Muhammad stated the Five Pillars of Islam, which are the basic rules of the religion. Mohammed did not set up any priesthood or church—ritual centers around daily prayer and pilgrimage, without other rituals or hierarchical spiritually privileged priesthood. Koran= “five Pillars” is a guide of duties for all life’s endeavors==Reward for observing is Paradise
- reciting the creed: “There is no god but God; Muhammad is the Messenger of God”
- daily prayer (3-5 times) facing Mecca and Fridays in a Mosque
- abstinence of food, drink and sexual activity during the daylight hours of Ramadan (9th lunar-holy-month)
- the duty of almsgiving
- pilgrimage to Mecca at least once before death
In relation to art history, the first & second pillars are the most important to comprehend because they exert an enormous influence on Islamic art & architecture. Worshipping other gods was forbidden, as was making any likeness of gods, which is similar to Judaism & Christianity, two other monotheistic religions. Islamic holy places lack figural representation. Instead, Islamic artist created elaborate, abstract designs.
Koran- Islamic holy book (The Word of God). It is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, arranged from longest to shortest. The Koran details the many visions and revelations given to Muhammad by Allah through the angel Gabriel. Reading the Koran is an important expectation of Islam because it established the basis for the faith. Writing provided a major medium for artistic expression. Thus, calligraphy, or writing as a decorative art, became a significant part of Islamic art. Skillful scribes embellished the words of the scriptures.
-collection of moral laws as revealed to Muhammad and written down after Mohammed’s death by the caliph Uthman (644-656)
-is supplemented by the Sunna (moral saying of Muhammad and anecdotes of his exemplary deeds
-Caliph’s descendants of families of the Prophet
Importance of the text of the Koran:
The sacred scripture of Islam, called the KORAN, contains the revelations of the Prophet Muhammad.
The earliest Islamic scripts, called Kufic, were angular and evolved from inscriptions on stone monuments.
Calligraphy was regarded as a holy occupation = required intense training. In addition, the exteriors of Islamic buildings are often covered in calligraphic tiles.
-Scribes & calligraphers were held in high status in Islamic society
-The written language of Arabic was a complex system of literary tradition & numerical symbolism
Arabesque Designs, distinctive feature of Islamic art– although Islam prohibited zoomorphic (human or animal) images in holy places, it did not prohibit art altogether. The walls, both interior & exterior, are covered with mosaic of gardens, plants, & buildings in addition to calligraphy. Verses in the Koran describe paradise as a place of lush gardens, verdant groves of trees, and flowing streams. These mosaics help the Muslim faithful to visualize the beauty that awaits them. Artist also created intricately interlaced designs known as arabesques (arab-like).
-composed of a complex interweaving of plant motifs and geometric patterns
-can cover the entire surface of a book page, carpet, or wall.
-Islamic prayer rugs contain these designs
There are many ways in which Islam affected the West between 800-1600 CE. Algebra, Arabic numerals, and great advances in medicine came from the lands of Islam. Many art historians credit Islamic architects with providing the seeds of Gothic architecture. The structural and decorative uses of the pointed arch are considered important sources for Gothic architecture. The delicate carvings that complemented Islamic buildings also affected western art, particularly in Spain where the influence was felt well into the Renaissance. The importation of textiles, carpets, ceramics, and manuscripts also profoundly affected European decorative arts.
Mosque Architecture
No images of anything living are allowed in Islamic mosques
-only elaborate interweaving designs called arabesques, and calligraphic passages of text
-surface are covered with rich, flat, linear patterns of geometric and organic designs
-Islamic leaders commissioned personal objects for writing (p. 355)
-Imperial workshops produced illuminated manuscripts (p. 363)
A "tugra" includes: ruler’s name, ruler’s father’s name, the title “khan”/does not include --Muhammad's name
During its formative centuries, Islamic art was influenced by all of the following cultures-Persian, Roman, Byzantine
Building Types
- The mosque- an assembly hall for sermons & prayers
- The madrasah- a school for religious & legal instruction
- The tomb- & other memorial structures at sacred sites
- The palace complex
Media & Techniques
1.Brick (mud-brick & fired brick) used for walls, piers, arches, & vaults
- Stucco & plaster used to cover brick surfaces, often carved with elaborate decorative schemes
- Wood used for roof beams & coverings, & coffered ceilings
- Marble & other stone used occasionally as decorative veneers (sometimes for structure)
- Post-and-lintel construction commonly used. Flat roofs supported by walls, piers, & columns
- Arch construction used for vaults & domes, & arcades. Arches used for decorative enrichment
- Pointed arch used inventively and influenced late Romanesque & Early Gothic architecture in Europe. Europeans who traveled to Syria, Egypt, and Spain on religious pilgrimages, on the Crusades, and for trade observed Islamic architecture first hand.
Design
- Types of mosque construction:
-The hypostyle mosque, derived from Mohammed’s house
-The basilica mosque – adapted from Christian buildings
-The central plan – for tomb-mosques & other memorial structures (shrines) / plans circular, polygonal, or square / structures often roofed with domes
-The four-iwan plan- for mosques & madrasahs / vaulted room, open at one end, derived from tent construction / open off a central court, forming a cross-shaped plan
Elements of a Mosque:
-Courtyard- large, rectangular, & enclosed
-Sahn, fountain in the center of the courtyard
-qibla wall – wall which faces Mecca
-mihrab, niche in qibla wall
-minbar – pulpit next to the mihrab where the imam (teacher) recites the Koran & gives sermons
-minaret – tower, usually located at each corner of a mosque, used by the muezzin (crier) to call the faithful to prayer
- Madrasah – a sahn in the center of a enclosed courtyard / 4 schools constructed on the four sides of the court
- Palace complexes – surrounded by fortified brick walls with towers / fortress-like with forbidding, severe exteriors . lavish interiors, with fountains & gardens / pointed arches, vaults, domes, & half-domes / decorated lavishly with delicate stucco & plaster carvings that made architectural surfaces look like lacework
Decoration of Islamic architecture:
-Mosaics: glass & tile, brilliantly colored
-Carved designs in stucco, plaster, & wood
-Inscriptions in elegant calligraphy carved above columns & arches
-Arches: pointed, flying (multiple tiers of arches spring from the same pier), multi-lobed, multi-colored, & striped
-Columns & capitals quarried from earlier Roman & Christian buildings
-Textiles & carpets
Painting
Manuscript illumination – practiced throughout the Middle East. The Arabian Peninsula was the most active center between 700-12--, and Persia was most significant between 1200-1800
Purpose & Subject Matter – Early manuscripts (700-1200) consisted primarily of scientific texts written in Arabic or translated from Greek, Hebrew, & other languages. Illustrations were often done by foreign artist of various religions. Later manuscripts *1200-1800) included a broader range of subjects:
-Literary works- histories, romances, poems, etc. Were popular and often illustrated with landscape paintings based on earlier Chinese Sung Dynasty model and on narrative paintings in which the settings were more important than the action.
-Religious themes- often associated with the life of Mohammad, were important after 1400. The Koran was never illustrated, but the production of new copies of the text was extremely significant to the development of diverse calligraphic styles.
Media & Techniques
- Water-soluble pigment mixed with egg white, egg yolk, or similar substances, and applied in opaque layers
- Drawings done in pen & ink
- Illuminations done on parchment, vellum, or paper. Paper brought from China by the Mongols. In 13th century, the Arabs introduced paper into Western Europe
- Gold leaf was an important addition to later, more lavish works
Design – Many foreign styles influenced early Islamic painting, including Early Christian & Byzantine. Chinese art had the most impact on Persian painting. Initially, Moslem artists knew of Chinese works through trade. With the arrival of the Mongols, direct contact with Chinese art & artists strongly affected Persian manuscript production. Through the dispersion of Persian manuscripts, the Chinese influence made its way to other Islamic countries.
Chinese influences include: an interest in landscape painting; Buddhist prototypes for religious images; flame-like haloes; curly clouds; oriental facial types & costumes.
-All paintings had a linear quality with forms treated as flat, decorative elements
-Rhythm & pattern of shapes & lines were expressive and lively
-Calligraphy developed as an important art & often was included in illuminations as a necessary element. Frequently, the letter forms were intended to produce a kind of hidden imagery of human & animal forms
Sculpture
Relief sculpture- was important for architectural decoration. It consisted of designs & patterns rather than scenes, figures, or symbols, although a few animal images can be found
Free-standing sculpture- was restricted due to the religion’s prohibition against the making of graven images. The few animal images that were made are exceptional
Minor Arts
Because many Moslem artists & artisans were nomads, portable works were important, and many of these were traded to westerners, significantly influencing Medieval European arts.
Textiles & carpets- influenced western design & manufacturing techniques in the late Middle Ages
Ceramic- production was limited to urban centers, especially in Persia & Iraq. Persian ceramics carried many Chinese elements into the West
Metalwork- included basins, jewel cases, etc., made of wrought iron, copper, & brass inlaid with silver
VOCABULARY
calligraphy aniconic mosque minbar drum frieze rosette
sahnqibla mihrab maqsuraminaret hypostyle hypostyle halls
four-iwan mosque madrasa horseshoe arch voussoir ogival arch muqarnas
corbeled squinch ziggurat vellum mirador squinch iwan fritware
lusterware tapestry warp weft illuminator miniature tugras
ART OF INDIA
Historical Context
Pre-history: c. 2500 BCE-civilization in the Indus Valley
c. 1800 BCE-Aryan (Indo- European) invasion from the north
Vedic Period 550 BCE-Buddhism established (Sakyamuni Buddha born C. 563 BCE
327 BCE-Alexander the Great conquers northern India – Greek culture into India
Maurya Dynasty 273-232 BCE-Asoka makes Buddhism the dominant religion
Kushan Period 1St – 3RD Cent. CE-Hellenistic & Roman influences seen in artwork of this period- Poseidon in
torque around neck, contrapposto pose, drapery in garment & more defined
musculature on torso
Religion before 1100
Buddhism, Hinduism, & Jainism = dominant religions
Images of Buddha were typically dressed in monks’ robes (p. 378)
Buddhism--the belief that all existence implies sorrow
-the cause of sorrow is attachment to work and the self
-attachment can be dissolved through the elimination of desires
-binds the self to a countless succession of rebirths
-the cessation of rebirth can be accomplished by following the Eightfold Path
-prescribes simple practices of right thought, right speech & right action
-Nirvana – the ultimate enlightenment
complete understanding of the universe that Buddha had
-Bodhisattva – beings who are capable of enlightenment but who forego it in
order to help other living beings towards salvation
-often serving as attendants to the Buddha
–literally aids to his teachings
–presented in princely dress & ornament
Artist before 1100
-artist were rigorously trained and possessed high degrees of technical skill
-early Indian figures are more softly modeled and relaxed in posture
(comparison with the idealized athletic male sculptures of ancient Greece)
-main architectural form was the Stupa
first constructed to house relics of the Buddha (p 374)
-fresco paintings are found on walls of Buddhist rock-cut halls (p 382)
-requirement to convincingly depict philosophical concepts and complicated figures in
representations of deities (p 393)
Symbols before 1100
-seals combined script and images
-often of animal and plant forms (p367)
-strong literary tradition in Sanskrit language
-Buddha characterized by thirty-two distinguishing physical marks
-elongated arms
-wheel marks on palms of hands and soles of feet
-white hair between eyebrows (p.427)
-female beauty associated with fertility, which reflects divine generosity (p 373)
Religion After 1100
Buddhism began to decline in India during the 7th century
Buddhist centers concentrated in the northeast
Monastic universities were located = attracted monks from China, Korea & Japan
Jain art - a pictorial manifestation of the teaching of Mahavira
-the final in a series of twenty-four pathfinder saviors
-rebirth in the heaven of the pathfinders is achieved through purification by living a life of austerity and avoiding the killing of living creatures
-dominant religion of India became Hinduism during the Early Medieval period
Vedic Religion– earliest religious beliefs of Indian people