Louis Pisha AP US History
Chapter 5: An American People
The Winning of Independence
The Rebel Army
The French Alliance
From Saratoga to Yorktown
Peace
The Experimental Period
The Fruition of Americanisms
Building a National Government
Congress under the Confederation
National Humiliation
The Crisis of American Nationality
Thinking Continentally
The Great Convention
Ratification
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▪ Loyalists vast minority, and never enough to win a battle for the British
The Winning of Independence
The Rebel Army
▪ Although inflicted much harm on British army at Bunker Hill and Lexington/Concord, not an army, and George Washington’s first order of business was to make them one—not just instruction and supplies but system of officers which didn’t always work right
▪ Also, many soldiers local militia who came to a single battle and then left for harvest—lack of pay and pension—Washington able to enlist 10,000 men till end of 1776 and colony governments provided 7000 extra
▪ Supplies also a problem
▪ Rebel army thought Canadians might welcome invasion, so invaded to also take Quebec and Montreal—only 1000 men ended up arriving, got no support from Canadians, besieged city through winter, and ended up withdrawing
▪ When British arrived at Charleston, SC, made mistakes and turned back easily
▪ Washington occupied Dorchester Heights overlooking Boston, and the British left by sea for Nova Scotia
▪ Although the American cause looked promising, Parliament approved army of 55,000 including 17,000 Hessians
▪ Howe wanted to end war soon, so sent letter to Washington, which he ignored, so British went with plan: landed 22,000 men in Brooklyn—attacked Washington, who withdrew to Manhattan
▪ British again planned conciliatory meeting but unwilling to recognize independence so brushed off—chased Washington out of NY into New Jersey, where once crossed Delaware, recrossed it Christmas Eve and captured a bunch of sleeping drunk Germans—smashed British again at Princeton and both armies went into winter quarters
▪ Howe finally decided to storm Philadelphia, and Americans could not stop them at Brandywine Creek or Germantown
▪ However, although Howe defeated American armies and controlled large cities, captured no armies and controlled really no territory
▪ In North, Burgoyne marched down from Canada by Lake Champlain, but lost to Gates and Arnold at Saratoga
The French Alliance
▪ Saratoga’s main effect was not military but diplomatic—England realized might lose the war so started committee to offer Americans anything if came back, which also showed French Americans strong
▪ Before this, Louis XVI helping colonists by aiding in munitions and supplies through fake trading company
▪ Once Declaration of Independence passed, Americans sent Arthur Lee and Ben Franklin to help Deane push France giving open aid
From Saratoga to Yorktown
▪ During 1777-8, Howe, languid, replaced by Clinton, who then went to New York to plan campaign in South—also France entered war
▪ After hard winter at Valley Forge, Washington’s forces supplied and instructed by von Steuben, and turned into semblance of an army again, but as Clinton retreated towards New York and Washington followed, only battle between them bungled by Americans and Clinton escaped
▪ French troops arrived under d’Estaing but storm and British reinforcements hit them and retreated to protect French West Indies
▪ Blow to Americans because had no navy and Britain’s navy great advantage to them—Congress not enough money for more than a few ships, but one important one was John Paul Jones who raided British coastal towns and seized British ships
▪ Washington dared not attack British army when they had naval support and he didn’t, so waited at White Plains for French support, but instead the French returned to France after a time
▪ Clinton started his Southern campaign: took Charleston in 1780 and captured whole American army, so returned to NY with Cornwallis in charge of going-to-be British sweep of Carolinas, and captured and/or routed Gates at Camden
▪ Washington sent Greene to help, who nibbled at Cornwallis’s forces at King’s Mountain, Hannah’s Cowpens, Guilford Courthouse
▪ April 1781, Greene went South to pick off more British outposts in Carolinas, while Cornwallis set off to conquer Virginia, where settled at Portsmouth and then Yorktown, both on coast, but in danger of being cut off
▪ In New York Washington and Clinton still waited—Rochambeau had been bottled up at Newport—then news French heading for Chesapeake and Washington, with proper cover and tactics, dashed south, while other American forces from south within range
▪ French also slipped out of Newport and defeated British on sea—closed in on Yorktown and Cornwallis surrendered to George Washington
Peace
▪ France and America ready for peace but French commitment to Spain that war couldn’t end until Spanish captured Gibraltar from British
▪ George wanted to continue war so fired North but had to accept ministry favorable to peace, so commissioners sent to Americans in France
▪ Adams only allowed to negotiate peace if Britain accepted colonial independence and boundaries at first—later, with help of French, added Franklin, Jay, (Laurens), and (Jefferson), and had to get all decisions accepted by France
▪ Once rumors French not interested all in colonial interests, Americans negotiated with Britain alone and didn’t tell Vergennes
▪ Colonists able to secure original plans and presented it to Vergennes—eventually treaties signed September 3, 1783, and British left North America
The Experimental Period
▪ Between 1776 and 1789, American ideals of government being tested and developed
The Fruition of Americanisms
▪ Political and social concepts more developed, but widespread education desirable shown by amount of schooling developed, especially colleges
▪ Wariness of allowing clergy hand in government led to great separation of church and state—most states still levied church taxes but citizens could choose which church, and Virginia didn’t even do that
▪ Phrase “All men are created equal” intended simply to justify break with Britain, but inescapable connection to slavery—in Experimental Period, most states didn’t allow importation of slaves, and many freed their slaves, but no S state provided for abolition of slavery
▪ Also could be taken to apply to aristocracy—nobody allowed to accept foreign titles, and even some societies denied because sounded like privileged order
▪ War had equalizing effect on property—merchants lost out, poor farmers prospered, abolition of primogeniture, increased number of landholders, after war ended and depression, some states even passed bills in favor of debtors
▪ Equality also in voting laws—most states had very limited, though existing, property qualifications for voting, because as purpose of government to protect property, people with none had no care for government—another reason for mass distribution of property, to keep this in line with most people voting
▪ Colonial concern for responsible representative government turned into call for republicanism—taken for granted in most states and the states made themselves republics with constitution and representative assembly if not already—tended to enlarge size and powers of lower house (more representative to people) and upper house not that much more upper
▪ Bills of rights in most state constitutions
▪ Most states, constitutions went into effect without popular approval, but Mass’s did and also provided for amendments by popularly elected council—which protected citizens further, because if same body made, carried out, and amended constitution without popular approval, could change it at will and still be tyrannous—this system admired so much that all further constitution-making in America followed this model
Building a National Government
▪ Most Americans believed republican government could not work over long distances because delegates so far away out of control of citizens, but states not survive on own, so solution confederation of states with joined power for certain purposes—Continental Congress already there, and continued powers—had 1 vote per state
▪ From beginning of Continental Congress, people felt needed stronger union, so Congress discussed this issue while not actually fighting war
▪ Finally, November 17, 1777, Congress agreed on constitution for states to approve—Articles of Confederation provided for similar congress, one vote per state, delegates from state legislatures, each state tax itself and contribute to federal government, feds not take away states’ Western lands, all other powers to states except war, taxes, ambassadors, treaties, mail, money, Indians, and interstate disputes
▪ All states accepted except Maryland because of Western states’ problem—always divisive force, and now states with W territories, as expanded, didn’t extend rights west
▪ Landed (land extends to Pacific by charter) and landless (Western boundary) states, and landless wanted western boundary for landed, and landed didn’t and squabbled over landed parts in conflict
▪ Problem worse because land speculation—speculators from PA, MD, NJ sought to establish new colony in Ohio Valley, Vandalia, and about to do it when Revolution happened, but now couldn’t because provision in Articles no state’s land taken away for sake of US but Maryland refused to ratify until got that land
▪ Also, as few taxes in landed states because of selling land, landless people move to landed states, depopulating landless
▪ Virginia, because of more loyalty to union and republicanism than speculators, gave up all W lands to US and provided for future division into equal-with-the-old states
▪ Maryland capitulated and eventually all states gave up W lands
Congress under the Confederation
▪ Articles of confederation acceptable to most people, but Congress had no power and plenty of responsibility—since had no power from Articles, once coming of peace, states brushed off central government and didn’t follow its orders and stuff—became known as “Critical Period”
▪ Because of way system worked with delegates (quorum), sessions sometimes had to wait weeks before could work, and sometimes functioning of congress dependent on 1 or 2 people showing up—also membership constantly shifting and no executive branch (although appointed some secretaries for this purpose)
▪ Congress in effect had responsibility without power, and could recommend with no one listening, and also had no home—made US look beggar in eyes of world
▪ Congress printed paper money, but became worthless, tried to borrow but sometimes denied, and tried to tax but denied by states
▪ US only appeared to have power in wilderness north of Ohio R.—Virginia gave that land up and US took it—now could raise revenue by selling that land—divided it into states and waited for people to move in
▪ Divided land into townships 6 mi2 and divided into 36 lots, lot smallest unit could be purchased, and land officers to convert land into cash
▪ Ohio Company offered to buy million and a half acres for reduced price, and Congress accepted—also option for extra land to Scioto Co.
▪ New ordinance to govern NW—Northwest Ordinance of 1787—provided for a period in which governor, secretary, court of 3 justices hold full powers, once 5000 population, get in effect powerless representative assembly, once 60,000 population, equal terms with other states, schools should be provided for
▪ Set precedent that guided future territorial expansion
National Humiliation
▪ US had only tenuous grip on the area, and European statesmen intrigued to push US W boundary back to Appalachians—British continued to occupy posts in American northwest and charged America with breaking the treaty (which they did by passing laws impeding collection of debts owed to Britain from before the war), and Adams not enough to convince England
▪ England didn’t send ambassador to America, and question of Vermont statehood
▪ Spain wanted Kentucky and Tennessee because had to do business with Spanish lower Mississippi –1784 Spanish closed Mississippi to Americans and waited for these areas to join Spain—North Carolina annexed Tennessee and then gave it up to federal government, which angered inhabitants who looked to Spain
▪ Gardoqui (Spain) and Jay argued over rights of America to Miss. and came up with this plan: agreed US have all territory to Miss. but give up navigation of Miss for 25 years—passed by Congress but not ratified
▪ Pioneers in that area flirting with Spain: Wilkinson, Robertson, Sevier, Miro (Spanish)
▪ Also, since Americans not paying off pirates, got privateered a huge amount
▪ Whole economy precarious—after war over, general American credited shopping spree, but when time to pay bills, in debt
▪ Americans no longer part of British profitable trading economy, and now British merchants asking for payment, so depression—lost economically dominant position won politically
▪ Some states tried to alleviate these problems, but could never happen without concerted federal effort, which did not exist
The Crisis of American Nationality
▪ As people realized more and more suffering from weakness of national government, protested more loudly
Thinking Continentally
▪ Americans usually called convention when wanted government changed, so decided to call one, and thinking about it early on but public support against it
▪ People supposed to put their citizenship of US above statehood, and reflected in works of literature and history
▪ Resistance to change from people who thought stronger federal government necessarily tyrannous and oppressive
▪ However, by 1786, such economic problems (interstate and international, mostly) that arranged for committee to meet in Annapolis to consider national authority over commerce—led by Madison—all they did was drew up proposal for next year, another convention for purpose of changing Feds’ powers in general
▪ Shays’s Rebellion: citizens of Massachusetts objected to upper house, heavy taxes, high court fees; rose up under Shays and beaten down by Mass militia—alarmed all US because threatened property and brought economic issues like worthless currency to light
▪ People started to realize that vicious state governments could be worse than strong national government
The Great Convention
▪ 4 of 6 greatest men of era (Franklin, Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Hamilton, Adams) at convention that met in Philly in September 1787—wealth of political experience to draw on, from Light ideals to Magna Carta to town meetings—no better time and group to craft a state
▪ Most were federalists, and planning to give federal government taxation, military, better protection to private property, and coercive powers
▪ 2 obstacles: Americans’ fear that if national government given enough power would take more than enough and corrupt itself; and rivalry among states—it might favor one over others in taxes, Western issues (they skirted issue by saying new states may be admitted to union and nothing more), etc
▪ More pressing question: How representation? x votes per states favored small states, votes per people favored large states
▪ Madison’s plan: 3-part federal government with bicameral legislature, executive, and judiciary to check and balance each other
▪ Alternate plan proposed by Paterson: Continuation of existing Congress, but power to tax, regulate trade, enforce own decrees