MEDAWARE- Part B
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
EURO-MEDITERRANEAN PARTNERSHIP
Development of Tools and Guidelines for the Promotion of the Sustainable Urban Wastewater Treatment and Reuse in the Agricultural Production in the Mediterranean Countries
(MEDAWARE)
Task 1: Determination of the Countries Profile
PART B: climate and water resources
INDEX2.1 CYPRUS / 4
2.1.1 Description of climate / 4
2.1.2 Volume of surface water, groundwater / 9
2.1.3 Water demand / 9
2.1.4 Agricultural water demand / 10
2.1.5 Industrial water demand / 10
2.1.6 Domestic water demand / 10
2.1.7 Water supply coverage: urban and rural / 11
2.1.8 Origin of irrigation water / 11
2.2 JORDAN / 13
2.2.1 Description of climate/agroclimate / 13
2.2.2 Volume of surface water, groundwater / 15
2.2.3 Water demand / 15
2.2.4 Agricultural water demand / 15
2.2.5 Industrial water demand / 15
2.2.6 Domestic water demand / 16
2.2.7 Water supply coverage: urban and rural / 16
2.2.8 Origin of irrigation water / 16
2.3 LEBANON / 17
2.3.1 Description of climate / 17
2.3.2 Volume of surface water, groundwater / 18
2.3.3 Water demand / 24
2.3.4 Agricultural water demand / 25
2.3.5 Industrial water demand / 27
2.3.6 Domestic water demand / 27
2.3.7 Water supply coverage: urban and rural / 27
2.3.8 Origin of irrigation water / 28
2.4 MOROCCO / 29
2.4.1 Description of climate / 29
2.4.2 Volume of surface water, groundwater / 29
2.4.3 Water demand / 29
2.4.4 Agricultural water demand / 30
2.4.5 Industrial water demand / 30
2.4.6 Domestic water demand / 30
2.4.7 Water supply coverage: urban and rural / 30
2.4.8 Origin of irrigation water / 30
2.5 PALESTINE / 32
2.5.1 Description of climate / 32
2.5.2 Volume of surface water and groundwater and water withdrawal / 33
2.5.3a Water resources of the West Bank / 33
2.5.3b Water resources of Gaza Strip / 34
2.5.4 Agricultural, industrial and domestic water demand / 36
2.5.5 Water supply coverage: urban and rural / 37
2.5.6 Origin of irrigation water / 38
2.6 TURKEY / 39
2.6.1 Description of climate / 39
2.6.2 Volume of surface water, groundwater / 41
2.6.3 Water demand / 42
2.6.4 Agriculture water demand / 44
2.6.5 Industrial water demand / 46
2.6.6 Domestic water demand / 46
2.6.7 Water supply coverage / 46
2.6.8 Origin of irrigation water / 47
2. Climate and Water Resources
2.1 CYPRUS
2.1.1 Description of climate
Cyprus has an intense Mediterranean climate with the typical seasonal rhythm strongly marked in respect of temperature, rainfall and weather generally. Hot dry summers from mid-May to mid-September and rainy, rather changeable, winters from November to mid-March are separated by short autumn and spring seasons of rapid change in weather conditions.
The predominant clear skies and high sunshine amounts give large seasonal and daily differences between temperatures of the sea and the interior of the island, which also cause considerable local effects especially near the coasts. Cyprus receives the solar radiation on a horizontal surface under relatively small angles of incidence. The maximum possible values of sunshine duration for Cyprus lie between the extremes of 9.8 hours in winter and 14.5 hours in summer.
In summer the island is mainly under the influence of a shallow trough of low pressure extending from the great continental depression centered over southwest Asia. It is a season of high temperatures with almost cloudless skies. Rainfall is almost negligible but isolated thunderstorms sometimes occur which give rainfall amounting to less than 5% of the total in the average year.
In winter Cyprus is near the track of fairly frequent small depression which crosses the Mediterranean Sea from west to east between the continental anticyclone of Eurasia and the generally low pressure belt of North Africa. These depressions give periods of disturbed weather usually lasting from one to three days and produce most of the annual precipitation, the average fall from December to February being about 60% of the annual total.
Rainfall
The average annual total precipitation increases up the south-western windward slopes from less than 450 mm to nearly 1100 mm at the top of the central massif. On the leeward slopes amounts decrease steadily northwards and eastwards to between 300 and 350 mm in the central plain and the flat south-eastern parts of the island. Figure 1 shows the average annual precipitation map of Cyprus for the year 1961-1990.
The narrow ridge of the Kyrenia range, stretching 100 miles from west to east along the extreme north of the island, produces a relatively small increase of rainfall to nearly 600 mm along its ridge at about 1 000 m.
Rainfall in the warmer months contributes little or nothing to water resources and agriculture. The small amounts which fall are rapidly absorbed by the very dry soil and soon evaporated in high temperatures and low humidity.
Autumn and winter rainfall, on which agriculture and water supply generally depend, is somewhat variable. The average rainfall for the year as a whole is about 465 millimeters but it was as low as 182 millimeters in 1972/73 and as high as 759 millimeters in 1968/69. (The average rainfall refers to the island as a whole and covers the period 1961-1990). Statistical analysis of rainfall in Cyprus reveals a decreasing trend of rainfall amounts in the last 30 year.
Snow occurs rarely in the lowlands and on the Kyrenia range but falls frequently every winter on ground above 1,000 meters usually occurring by the first week in December and ending by the middle of April. Although snow cover is not continuous during the coldest months it may lie to considerable depths for several weeks especially on the northern slopes of high Troodos.
Figure 2 shows the distribution of average precipitation over the months (1961-1990) for selected Meteorological Stations.
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MEDAWARE- Part B
Figure 1: Average Annual Precipitation Map
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MEDAWARE- Part B
Figure 2: Distribution of average precipitation (mm) over the months (1961-1990)
Air Temperatures
Regarding air temperatures Cyprus has a hot summer and mild winter but this generalization must be modified by consideration of altitude, which lowers temperatures by about 5ºC per 1 000 m and of marine influences which give cooler summers and warmer winters near most of the coastline and especially on the west coast.
The seasonal difference between mid-summer and mid-winter temperatures is quite large at 18ºC inland and about 14ºC on the coasts.
Differences between day maximum and night minimum temperatures are also quite large especially inland in summer. These differences are in winter 8 to 10ºC in the low-lying areas and 5 to 6ºC on the mountains increasing in summer to 16ºC on the central plain and 9 to 12ºC elsewhere.
In July and August the mean daily temperature ranges between 29 ºC on the central plain and 22 ºC on the Troodos mountains, while the average maximum temperature for these months ranges between 36 ºC and 27 ºC respectively. In January the mean daily temperature is 10 ºC on the central plain and 3 ºC on the higher parts of Troodos mountains with an average minimum temperature of 5 ºC and 0 ºC respectively. Some representative temperatures are given in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Representative temperatures in ºC
January / JulyLowest Min. Recorded / Mean
Min. / Mean
Max. / Mean
Min. / Mean
Max / Highest Max. Recorded
Nicosia
160m MSL / -3 / 5 / 15 / 21 / 37 / 43
Famagusta
20m MSL / -6 / 6 / 16 / 22 / 34 / 41
Paphos
10m MSL / -1 / 10 / 17 / 22 / 30 / 37
Prodhromos
1380m MSL / -11 / 1 / 6 / 18 / 26 / 32
Frosts are rarely severe but are frequent in winter and spring inland and in some years handicap the economically important production of early vegetable crops and main citrus crops.
Sunshine
All parts of Cyprus enjoy a very sunny climate compared with most countries. In the central plain and eastern lowlands the average number of hours of bright sunshine for the whole year is 75% of the time that the sun is above the horizon. Over the whole summer, for six months, there is an average of 11.5 hours of bright sunshine per day whilst in winter this is reduced only to 5.5 hours in the cloudiest months, December and January.
Even on the high mountains the cloudiest winter months have an average of nearly 4 hours bright sunshine per day and in June and July the figure reaches 11 hours.
2.1.2 Volume of surface water, groundwater
The total annual water crop is estimated around 900 million m3 (MCM) out of which 600 MCM is surface water and the remaining around 300 MCM is groundwater. However the water than can be used now is only 300 MCM per year. Out of the 300 MCM, 75 MCM are used for domestic, industrial and commercial use which corresponds to around 100m3/cap/year. The remaining is used for irrigation. For the area under control of the government with a tourist inflow of around 2.4 Million a year and population around 700,000 the domestic, industrial and commercial consumption of water is estimated at 67 MCM per year, where the irrigation water is around 175 MCM per year.
2.1.3 Water demand
The Total Annual Water Demand all over Cyprus for the year 2000 is estimated to be 265.9 million m3 (MCM). Agriculture, Domestic use, Industry and Environment are the four main economic sectors of water demand. Table 2 lists the water demand for these sectors as well as the percent contribution of each sector to the total annual water demand.
Table 2: Annual Demand by Sector for the Year 2000
Demand Sector / MCM / %AGRICULTURE / 182,4 / 69
Domestic / 67,5 / 25
Industry / 3,5 / 1
Environment / 12,5 / 5
TOTAL / 265,9 / 100
It is estimated that the water demand in the Government controlled areas will increase from 266 MCM in 2000 to 315 MCM in 2020. It is noted that conveyance, distribution and other losses are included in the above numbers.
2.1.4 Agricultural water demand
The amount of water withdrawal for agricultural purposes is 182,4 MCM of water per year or 69%. Animal Husbandry accounts for only 8 MCM or 4%, while the remaining 174,4 MCM are used for irrigation purposes, covering mainly from Government Irrigation Schemes. Irrigation efficiency especially in the Government schemes is high. The total annual Agricultural water demand is represented in Table 3, below.
Table 3: Distribution of the Agricultural Water Demand
Sector & source of water / MCM / %Irrigated Agriculture / Government Irrigation Schemes / 100,1 / 55
Non-Government Irrigation Schemes / 74,3 / 41
Total for Irrigation / 174,4 / 96
Animal husbandry / 8 / 4
TOTAL / 182,4 / 100
2.1.5 Industrial water demand
Industry in Cyprus is limited both in type and in capacity. As a result its demand for water is small and accounts for only 4 MCM or 1%. The main source of water supply to the industrial sector is groundwater.
Environmental demand includes the landscape irrigation demand and the water demand for ecological areas, and accounts for13 MCM or 5%. The sources of water supply are municipal domestic water (for ecological areas), groundwater and reclaimed water (for landscape irrigation).
2.1.6 Domestic water demand
The domestic demand sector comprises two sub-sectors i.e., the residential and tourism. These sub-sectors are interwoven, as their conveyance network is common.
Table 4: Annual Demand by Sector for the Year 2000
Domestic Demand / MCM / %Residents / 53,4 / 20
Tourism / 14,1 / 5
Total / 67,5 / 25
The sources satisfying the current demand are desalination (43%), surface water (25%) and groundwater (32%). All these sources are from Government water works. Water is sold in bulk to Water Boards, Municipalities and Community Councils.
It has been estimated that the present per capita daily water consumption, including losses in the distribution system, for the urban, rural and tourism sub-sectors is 215 (180 net), 180 (150 net) and 465 liters, respectively.
2.1.7 Water supply coverage: urban and rural
Almost all population today is served by good quality pressurized (piped) water. It is noted that 74% of the population lives in the main cities and suburbs requiring 78% of the total domestic supply and the remaining 26 percent in the villages requiring 22% of the total domestic supply. The losses in the distribution system (unaccounted water) range from 12 - 15 percent in the urban centers to 35 - 40 percent in the rural areas.
2.1.8 Origin of irrigation water
57% of the annual amount of water for irrigation purposes is provided mainly from Government Irrigation Schemes. In the Government schemes the sources of water used are surface water, groundwater and reclaimed water. As a rule the water demand in the non- Government schemes is satisfied by groundwater.
Surface Water: Although the capacity of all the main dams is 273.6 MCM, the average annual amount of water available for use is estimated to be about 101.5 MCM. During the dry year of 2000 the contribution to irrigation of all dams was only 28.5 million m3. Out of the 101.5 MCM, 82 MCM are used within Government Projects, 14.5 MCM for domestic use (after treatment) and 5 MCM for ecological areas.
Groundwater extraction is estimated to be about 127.4 MCM on an annual basis. Such figure does not mean the safe yield of the aquifers, which is much lower. From this amount, 100.4 MCM are used for agriculture (26 MCM are within the Government Irrigation Schemes and 74.4 MCM are outside the Government Schemes).
Springs contribute very little, amounting to 3.5 MCM per year, for the domestic use of the mountainous villages.
Desalination units at present contribute up to 33.5 MCM per year.
Treated sewage effluent: Presently, only about 3 MCM is used, from which 2 MCM for agriculture and the rest for landscape irrigation.
2.2 JORDAN