Development Model of Leadership Skills

DEVELOPMENT MODEL OF LEADERSHIP SKILLS

IN THE MILITARY CONTEXT

Carlos Rouco

()

Manuela Sarmento

()

University Lusiada

Portuguese Military Academy

Rua Gomes Freire

1169-203 Lisbon (Portugal)

ABSTRACT

In an environment dominated by uncertainty, in which, more than the mere act of prescribing and accomplishing tasks, the leader faces the challenge of achieving results, one notices the importance of competences in different spaces, with a particular reference to the military context, where a solid position is seek by means of excellence performances in an adverse and complex environment. The limit is the sacrifice of the own lives and the defence of the vital objectives of a nation.

The collective performance and its efficiency depend on many factors. However, leadership assumes a determining role on Human Resources mobilisation to the organisational success. Still within the military context, all those with command functions know that the main component to accomplish the mission is human factor and that leadership is an essential function to establish interpersonal relations between the commander and the subordinates and, therefore, to ensure that mission is successfully carried out.

To analyse the exercise of the leadership function, from team level to strategic level, a direct influence is noticed on its members, as well as an indirect effect on behaviours and performances derived from the internal and external environment of the organisation. On this perspective, leaders affect all functioning aspects of an organisation.

To identify the behaviours associated to leadership that lead to superior performances at the different hierarchic levels through the individuals that have “command” functions, a profile of behaviours may be found which be serve as a structural pillar to serve s reference for the standards required in the Portuguese Army.

Considering the above mentioned and within the area of management, the purpose of this research is to develop in practical and theoretical terms, a Model of Management for the Development of Leadership Skills to support the development of human capital, through a methodology that enables the identification of competences associated to leadership, so that the Institution may achieve superior performances.

In this sense, The general objectives of this research are: (a) to identify the skills related to leadership that Officers of the Portuguese Army consider to be the most important ones to achieve superior performances; (b) to define a leadership model within the military domain, that enables to identify the reference pattern and consequently to verify education gaps and needs.

For the research work, a theoretical possibility and two practical possibilities have been considered:

Possibility 1: Commanders and leaders have different levels in the organization.

Possibility 2: Officers distinguish the most important competences to accomplish the role of leader.

Possibility 3: There are differences between the level of importance and the performance in the competences associated to leadership adopted by Officers of different categories.

During the research, the following methodology has been adopted: (1) based on theories, models and frameworks the differences between a manager and a leader have been identified; (2) from the revision of literature 113 competences have been identified associated to leadership with a strong correlation to superior performances; (3) the 113 competences have been validated by three experts, resulting in 53; (4) a list of competences has been elaborated adapted to the military context; (5) from the revision of literature and to measure each competence 204 items have been associated; the list of competences and respective items have been validated by a commission composed by 8 experts from which 68 items resulted; (6) a preliminary enquiry and a pre-test have been carried out; (7) the final enquiry has applied to a to group of 351 Officers of the Portuguese Army.

The final enquiry is composed by 68 items with two scales from 1 to 10. The first one is to measure the importance of each item in order to achieve superior performances and the second one to measure the real performance of each person enquired.

The statistic methods used at the different phases of the research have been the following ones: (1) in the revision of literature one used the document analysis and the analysis of contents for the identification of competences associated to leadership; (2) in the validation of competences and respective items the method used was the CVR method of Lawshe; (3) The analysis of the main components was used to define dimensions. To support the model to designate dimensions the analysis of contents was used.

From the results it was concluded that the commander has functions of planning, organisation and control, but not necessarily the function of leadership. The function of leadership is only carried out when interpersonal relations are established between the commander and his subordinates. He is only accepted as leaders when his informal authority is recognised. The leader establishes relations centred on motivation and inspiration of the followers to achieve results beyond the expectations. The role of commander is essential to assist the organisation to find commitments, but a good leader is essential to guide the organisation to the extraordinary efforts,

One of the main conclusions is that Officers consider the following dimensions as the most important ones to achieve superior performances: (1) guidance for the missions through ethics and example; (2) decision making and planning; (3) vision; (4) cohesion and team work; (5) conflict management; (6) participative leadership and commitment.

The dimensions “cohesion and team work” are strongly correlated with “guidance for the missions through ethics and example” and “decision making and planning”. Therefore, one may conclude that Officers consider that to perform the role of leader and to achieve superior performances is essential to be supported by the subordinates in the accomplishment of the task and sharing of information.

The categories of Subaltern Officers and Captains and Superior Officers feel the need of formation or improvement of the performance levels in order to achieve superior performances in all the dimensions identified. In the category of General Officers, real performance, in dimensions “orientation for the mission through example and ethics”, “cohesion and team work”, “conflict management” and “participative leadership and commitment” are inferior to the reference patterns. The real performance, in the dimensions “decision making and planning and vision” are higher than those of the reference pattern.

From the research one may conclude that Officers are progressing in their careers and simultaneously the practice of behaviours associated to leadership is getting closer to the reference pattern values and in some dimensions even superior.

Key-Words: Education, Competences, Leadership, Officers, Military Context.

1. COMPETENCE CONCEPT

Next sections will analyse the competences concepts and the different leadership theories, in order to identify personalities, attitudes and behaviours that are linked to leadership and to superior performances.

McClelland (1973) define the competence variables that can be used as predictive of a task achievement and which are not based on indicators such as ethnicity, gender, social and economic factors. Their researches were significant to identify capacities in the work development, in which the qualities of the collaborators were not the only aspect to be considered. McClelland’s article was the key to the development of the competences approach as alternative to intelligence tests.

McClelland’s competences model may be summarized in two factors: (a) the use of criteria samples (that systematically compare people with superior performances in relation to others); (b) identification of knowledge, capacities, attitudes and behaviours that are related to successful results.

According to several authors, competences are defined as:

The basic individual characteristics that are casually related to effective criteria of reference or superior performances at work or in a given situation (Spencer & Spencer, 1993).

Effective performance in an occupation, with variable basic levels of proficiency at the highest levels of excellence (Cheetham & Chievers, 2005).

The analysis of the different competence concepts, allows to conclude that competence has a wide range of characteristics. Many definitions ignore the McClelland’s definition according to which competences must differentiate superior and medium performances (the difference between competences) and that has an empiric connection to the word performance (competences at the initial spot).

1.1COMPETENCES DEVELOPMENT

To Sinott, Madison and Pataki (2002) the development of competences may be observed as a “life cycle” which points out continuous enhancements. The first steps of this “life cycle” may be identified as follows: (a) The creation of a competence model through the identification of work requirements, roles and relevant competences; (b) The evaluation of the existing competences;(c) The analysis among the existing competences; (d) The required competences for a specific role or task; (e) The definition of the competence development program to minimize the differences; (f) The continuous monitoring of the performance and evaluation to confirm the improvements.

The creation of competence models may be carried out through several approaches. The most common ones are at the level of function or organisation (Mansfield, 2004). The two previous approaches identify the characteristics (KSAO) and are necessary to reach success in a particular function. They are often referred as a model with a vertical format (up towards down) and complementarily similar to the analysis of the function.

The second approach takes in consideration the objectives of organisation, vision, strategy and tries to develop a set of competences that are applied to the organisation as a whole, to an area of the organisation or a function inside the organisation (Lawler, 1994).

The competence models and function analysis are sufficient to clarify the best methodology between debates. The selection of the methodology depends on the conditions of the environment, organisation needs and objectives of the competence models, as mentioned in Table 1.

Table 1: Competence models and function analysis.

Situation / Function Analysis / Competence model
Personality / Strategy / Cognitive tasks / Orientation / work / Upwards / downwards / Downwards / upwards
Leadership training for a successful planning / X
Selection of tools for the new function / X / X

Source: Adapted from Byham and Moyer (2005).

An organisation has to decide the required specificity level as well as the international scale where the effort of competence models / function analysis must be focused, as referred in Table 2.

Table 2. Level and specificity in competence models / function analysis.

Specificity
On in each case / Applied in many cases
Individual (function, role, function level) / Function analysis / Competences of the function
(Multiples approaches to the function))
Organisation (function, departments, or the organisation as a whole) / Organisational competences (organisational forces) / Nucleous of Competence

Source: Adapted from Byham and Moyer (2005).

If the organisation needs to examine several functions levels, or the entire organisation, it must examine the organizational competences (Byham & Moyer, 2005). A solid understanding of the basis will aid to maximize and adjust the approaches between the function analysis of the competence models to be taken, as well as the results for each process.

The model of competences is typically considered a mechanism to connect the development of HR with organisation strategies: “a descriptive tool that identifies skills, knowledge, personal characteristics and necessary behaviours to perform an effective role in the organisation” (Lucia & Lepsinger, 1999, p. 5). Gangani, McLean and Braden (2004, p.1111) also referred that “the practice of these nuclear competences align the strategic objectives of an organisation as a key of the Human Resources project”.

1.2FROM COMPETENCES TO SUPERIOR PERFORMANCE

White (1959), McClelland (1973) and Spencer and Spencer (1993) defined the variables of competences as predictor of superior performances and high motivation.Therefore, for these authors the “reference criteria” of a competence is a critical factor, in which superior and effective performance is the most significant. Still for Lucia and Lepsinger (1999) competences represent “a descriptive tool that identifies skills, knowledge, personal characteristics and the necessary behaviours to perform an effective role in the organisation” (p. 5).

The word efficiency derives from the term “effect” and it is used within the context cause-effect. Therefore, each efficiency level may be considered as a variable caused by other variables (Gibson Ivancevich, Donnelly, & Konopaske, 2006). As presented in Figure 1, at individual level – efficiency is related to competences, at collective level – leadership is one of the factors that cause organisational efficiency. Also Mintzberg (1973) considers that leadership is one of the roles developed by managers, namely during the activities where interpersonal behaviours are required.

Figure 1: Efficiency causes.

Source: Adapted from Gibson et al. (2006, p.16).

According to Figure 2, to accomplish an effective performance at the different levels, it is necessary to develop a management work that includes the work of individuals, groups and organisations, through four functions which are: planning, organisation, direction and control (Gibson et al., 2006).

Figure 2: Contribution of management to efficiency.

Source: Gibson et al. (2006, p.17).

Donnelly,Gibson and Ivancevich (2000) advert against the possibility of including other functions such as: Decision making, education, coordination, implementation and accomplishment. Authors consider leadership and influence areas of responsibility of the managers that try to engage the collaborators “to adopt work behaviours that may lead to results” (p.8).

We may state that competences linked to leadership to be identified in our study must have reference criteria to determine the level of accomplishment and therefore the level of efficiency to reach superior levels of performance.

On the other hand, competences linked to leadership are framed in the functions of direction and control or in the leadership function where managers have to interact with their collaborators and where motivation, values, cohesion and satisfaction are assumed as determining factors for effective performances or to motivate the collaborators to develop extraordinary efforts.

2. TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

A transformational approach was introduced by Antonakis and House in “Full-range Leadership” theory and gave origin to neo-charismatic movement promissory in the measure that it took many aspects of the previous perspectives.

According to Burns (1978), leadership is a process and not a set of acts, described as “a flux of interpersonal relationships in which leaders constantly appeal to the to followers’ motivations and change behaviours” (p.440). Transformational leadership may be described as a procedure between individuals and the power of mobilisation to change social and institutional systems. On the other hand, transformational leadership includes sharing, expressivity and conflict mediation between groups and individual motivations.

Bass (1985) defines transformational leadership in terms of impact of the leader about the followers. Followers trust, admire and respect the leader and often are motivated “to do things” beyond their initial expectations. According to Bass (1985), a leader may transform his followers through the following behaviours: (a) make them aware of the importance and value of the results of the task; (b) induce them to surpass their own personal interests in benefit of the team; (c) activate the highest needs.

Charismatic and transformational theories are very similar. Charisma is also an element of transformational theory, inserted in the idealized influence and in inspiring motivation (Bass & Riggio, 2006). Transformational leadership also includes charismatic theory as well as personal consideration and intellectual stimulation (Lowe & Gardner, 2000). Many theoretical defend that the two theories are mixed or fused and therefore a new leadership paradigm is predicted (Avolio & Bass, 2004; Lowe & Gardner, 2000).

To Burns (1978), transformational leadership is opposed to transactional leadership. Transactional leadership motivates the followers, appealing to their own interests. The transactional leader gives rewards for the accomplishment of changes and extra efforts at work. Transactional leadership also includes values, relevant to change a process, such as honesty, responsibility and reciprocity. The influence on transactional leadership is based on bureaucratic or formal authority. Bureaucratic organizations enhance legal power and respect for rules and traditions. On the other hand, transformational leadership is based on change and inspiration.

Figure 3 illustrates constructions and respective competences linked to the transformational leader.

Figure 3: Constructions and competences associated to the transformational leader.

Source: Adapted from Antonakis and House (2002), Avolio (1999), Avolio and Bass (2004), Bass and Avolio (1990, 1997).

Burns (1978) and Bass (1985) consider transactional leadership as a change of rewards based on results. Bass (1985) defines transactional leadership using a wider range than Burns. Bass (1985) considers transformational and transactional leadership as being distinct but not exclusive proceedings and he recognizes that the same leader may use these two types of leadership in different situations.

Spencer and Spencer (1993) identified several competences in more than 200 jobs with different levels. The highest seem to be related to better performances, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Relation between competences and leadership.

1. METHODOLOGY

From the literature review (scientific articles) 113 competences have been identified, which have a close and positive connection with leadership. This research ended when the subject became saturated. After validation by a commission composed by three experts (Ph.D.)on leadership and human resources 53 competences were considered for the study. From the description of different authors and technical manuals of the areas of Social Sciences and Military Doctrine, a directory was created for the military area, using the 53 competences and respective descriptions. This project was adopted by military experts and discussed by Officers with a large experience in several Theatres of Operations.