“Describe the neuroanatomy of and neural processes related to learning based on current literature.”
The difference between learning and memory is rather subtle; learning is the process by which new information and abilities are incorporated into one’s mind, whereas memory is the way in which that information or those abilities are stored. It is important to note from the outset that there are certainly different kinds of memory, such as procedural memory (remembering how to do something) and declarative memory (remembering some actual semantic information), and that the two are often unrelated. For example, a basketball player may be able to shoot a perfect free throw, but does not need to be aware of the physics that go into the free throw because the memory is procedural; a physicist can likely describe all the relevant physics at play in the basketball-shooting system, but cannot typically themselves shoot a free throw as well as the basketball player can. This describes, to some extent, the difference between declarative and procedural memory; although they are different, both are certainly kinds of memory.
Learning is commonly defined as the process by which experiences are incorporated into memory. This is a broad definition that encompasses not only the most traditional type of learning (school learning, incorporated textbook facts into declarative memory), but also learning of procedural memories, which take place according to a notably different process. By this definition, learning also describes how people form memories of significant one-time events, such as a car accident, though rarely would we actually define this as learning. However, it is relevant to define learning as encompassing all of these aspects because biologically, the same system is largely responsible for all different kinds of learning. This system is a part of the limbic system, specifically focusing on the frontal lobe and the hippocampus. The limbic system, like all parts of the brain, communicates through the firing of electrical impulses in neurons. These neurons are responsible for storing all kinds of information in ways that are not fully understood; however, a property regarding them called plasticity has been defined that determines the ability of an individual neuron to take on new information. These neurons take on information when the individual is exposed to the stimulus to be learned; at this time, the amplitude of the “excitatory potential” rises for a long period of time, indicating learning.
Retrieval is a different process, but retains some similarities. Just as those neurons are excited when information is being learned, so also is retrieval the process of re-activating those neurons. This happens similarly for both long-term and short-term memories; the two types of memories are stored in different places, but the process at play remains notably similar. In long-term memory processing, however, the pattern is as one would expect to ensure memories are stored permanently, including actual change to cell structure and the formation of new and unused synapses. This process has been described as a pattern of encoding (translating stimuli into the storage system used by the brain), consolidation (linking the encoded stimuli with other memories), storage (placing the stimuli in memory), and retrieval (accessing the memory of the stimuli at a later date).