Progress Report (work until Nov 2005) of Learning Modes Working Group
A. Duarte[1], J. Paasimäki[2] & P. Koulouris[3]
A)Background statement: Interest of the subject of this group to multigrade Education
In Multigrade classes, where students from different levels are involved, psychological heterogeneity is expected to be greater than in normal classes. If the issues of variation between pupils and of ways of dealing with this variation are important in any class, they are critical in Multigrade classes. In Multigrade education one of the most important dimensions of psychological heterogeneity is LearningModes, whichrefer to the variation observed in the learning process (e.g. some pupils prefer to learn by hearing, others by seeing and others by touching).
The implication is that multigrade teachers should be aware of the different learning modes present in their classes and should develop competences for dealing with learning modes.
Specifically, the subject of Learning Modes can be of interest to Multigrade education in at least three different ways:
1)By being aware and informed of different learning modes, multigrade teachers can be better able to pinpoint and understand the variation in learning that typically occur in multigrade classes.
2)Considering that students improve by using preferred learning modes (e.g. visual learning) or by using a variety of learning modes (e.g. visual and auditory learning), multigrade teachers can benefit from knowing how to vary their teaching practices, as a way of reaching more students.
3)Taking into account that in multigrade class (where individual variation is higher and teachers must often attend separately to various sub-groups), students must be particularly able to: independently self-regulate their learning; to be intrinsically motivated to learn and achieve; to actively comprehend contents in an organised way; and to learn in a collaborative way, multigrade teachers can benefit from knowing how to promote such learning modes.
B)Theoretical study of the subject of the working group
Abstract: Besides a definition of learning modes as the variation observed in the learning process, a framework of different learning modes is proposed: surface vs. deep-organized learning; instrumentally vs. intrinsically-achieving motivated learning; externally vs. self-regulated learning; individualistic vs. collaborative.
LearningModes might be defined asthe variation observed in the learning process (e.g. learning can be more an individualistic process or more a collaborative one). A student can vary the Learning Mode according to the learning situation and his or her learning needs (e.g. revising by rote learning, for a multiple-choice answer test, or revising by comprehending, for writing for a project).
Therefore, there are a diversity of learning modes which can be more or less adapted to different students and different learning situations.
When a specific learning mode is consistently used by a student, this can become his or her Learning Style.
How many Learning Modes?
In order to answer this question learning modes can be conceptualised across three axes, which reflect various aspects of the learning process:1) Cognitive; 2) Motivational; 3) Interpersonal.
Each axe involves different dimensions, reflecting diverse learning modes (e.g. Cognitive axe involves a dimension of memorising versus comprehending).
Each dimension can be conceptualised as discrete opposed poles or as opposed but in a continuum (i.e. as opposite processes or as complementing each other).
Each learning mode can appear in different ways; according to personal and environmental factors (e.g. there are many ways of conducting a self-regulated learning mode, as opposed to an external regulated learning mode)
Moreover, axes can cross, reflecting the interwoven of different learning modes (e.g. students might self-regulate their learning in a collaborative way)
For each of the threeaxes, we propose a focus on particular dimensions, taken as nuclear.
Considering the cognitive axe, learning can occur via a surface learning strategy (i.e. mechanically memorizing) versus via a deep-organized learning strategy (i.e. learning focused less in knowing by heart than in trying to understand the meaning of the contents, to relate them with previous knowledge, to be open to new contents and to change personal ideas, to memorise by comprehending, to critically analyse and have an opinion on contents, to be creative as well as organized and sensible to teachers’ evaluation) (Biggs, 1987).
Attending to the motivational axe, learning can be based in instrumental motivation (i.e. learning to avoid failure) versusbased in intrinsic-achiever motivation (i.e. learning for the pleasure and personal full-filing implicated in learning as well as for success). With such a motivation students normally go beyond what is demanded, perceive tasks as involving, get a lot of satisfaction from learning, strive for good marks and show a lot of involvement (Biggs, 1987).
Taking into account the interpersonal axe learning can be external regulated (i.e. learning is conducted by others or factors besides the learner) versus Self-Regulated (i.e. the process of managing one’s own learning) (Zimmerman, 1994). By self-regulating learning learners move from being externally controlled by teachers or others to being active in the control of their own learning processes. This means the attempt to self-control cognitive, motivational, behavioural and environmental aspects involved in learning.Learning can be also more individualistic(i.e. student learns alone, possibly along other students) or more collaborative (i.e. students work together cooperatively in small groups toward a common goal, taking care of each other’s learning as well as their own) (Johnson, Johnson & Holubec, 1991). Trough collaborative learning students can discuss and help, share, encourage, explain or teach each other.
Figure 1 depicts the three axes, with their referred learning modes.
Figure 1: Learning modes in three dimensions (axes) of the learning process
Each of these learning modes is reflected in specific forms when learning in particular tasks.
Regarding the potential of ICT for education, we will consider how the learning modes of the cognitive axe are reflected in ICT-based learning.
Basically, ICT-based learning can happen as learning from ICT (i.e. students are instructed by ICT) versus learning with ICT (i.e. students construct knowledge with the help of ICT by representing their knowledge in different, meaningful ways and by engaging in critical thinking about the content)(Jonassen, 2000).
Figure 2 illustrates reflection of cognitive axe learning modes in ICT-based learning.
Figure 2: Cognitive axe learning modes in ICT-based learning
A teacher can develop, encourage or/and constrain the use of specific learning modes, according to educational goals and the nature of different learning situations.
What are the practical implications of the existence of different learning modes?
We think it is possible to view this issue according to, at least, two perspectives.
The first perspective is that students improve by using preferred learning modes (e.g. visual learning) or they benefit from using a variety of learning modes (e.g. visual and auditory learning). In either case, the practical implication would be that a variation of teaching practices might be a good way of reaching more students.
The second perspective is that in any class, but especially in a Multigrade class, where individual variation is higher and teachers must often attend separately to various sub-groups, students must be particularly able to: independently self-regulate their learning; to be intrinsically motivated to learn and achieve; to actively comprehend contents in an organised way; to learn in a collaborative way. Furthermore, a mode of active learning with ICT can be especially helpful in this context. There are a variety of “ways” (practices) a teacher can use to promote such learning modes. These “ways” might depend on previous training, personal experience, knowledge, competency, culture references, etc.
Figure 3 presents the two stated perspectives regarding practical implications of the existence of different learning modes.
Figure 3: Two perspectives on practical implications of different learning modes.
Reflection on one’s own practice and other people’s practices can act as a factor of development.
References
Biggs, J.B. (1987). Student approaches to learning and studying. Melbourne: ACER.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T. and Holubec E. J. (1991). Cooperation in the Classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.
Jonassen, D.H. (1996). Computers in the classroom: Mindtools for critical thinking.Columbus, OH: Merrill/Prentice-Hall.
Schunk, D.H. and Zimmerman J. (1994). Self-regulation of learning and performance – issues and educational applications. Hillsdale-New Jersey: Lawrence Elrbaum.
Zimmerman, B. (1994). Dimensions of academic self-regulation: a conceptual framework for education. In D.H. Schunk & B.J. Zimmerman (Eds.) Self-regulation of learning and performance – issues and educational applications (pp 3-21). Hillsdale-New Jersey: Lawrence Elrbaum.
C)Practical classroom activities
C.1. Best practices based on teacher’s experience (see D) for methodology of gathering this data)
Practices ofvariation of teaching according to pupils’ variety of learning modes: personalized-teaching; attending alternatively to small groups, while other groups work autonomously.
Practices for developing a collaborative learning mode: setting ofcollective reading and writing situations; group problems; group projects; and collective games.
Practices for encouraging self-regulated learning mode: having several open thematic spaces/areas in the classroom; setting of problems; distribution of tasks and delegation of responsibilities; support of autonomous learning or of task definition; defining tasks; prompting of planning and of joint work evaluation.
Practices for promoting an intrinsic and achieving motivated learning mode: allowing free-choice of activities; setting of open problems; using familiar examples and tasks; using easy tasks for pupils with difficulties and using challenging tasks for more competent pupils; encouraging knowledge appliance; demonstrating enthusiasm and optimism; reading dramatically; setting situations of reciprocal teaching; inviting parents and guests to the classroom; encouraging task involvement and self-evaluation; using positive reinforcement; setting home works that demand assistance.
Practices for stimulating a deep and organized learning mode: opportunities for tactile-kinestesic learning; of situations of learning by discovery; of open tasks; of tasks of reciprocal teaching and of writing.
Practices for developing an active ICT-based learning mode: prompting pupils for computer-based search, organization, transformation and presentation of information as well as setting of small-group work and communication situations via the computer.
C. 2. Activities based on theory
An activity for promoting a collaborative self-regulated learning mode of a deep and organized learning mode: the “Strategies Game”[4].
The game aims to develop self-regulation of approaches to learning. It can be played individually or in a group. Playing in a group allows also the development of self-regulated collaborative learning[5].
Each time the game is played, it involves dealing with a different learning task, which is a pretext for the development of such competencies.
The game has a board of 85 places distributed in 14 parts. Each part has a different colour and finishes in a “Card Place”.
Figure 2: The game board
The game starts in the “Starting Place”, where the players have to read a green “Starting Card”. There is a different green card for each time the game is played and each proposes a new learning task (e.g. “Read the text ‘From the atom to the stars’ and answer the questions about its content, in the bottom of the page”). The goal is to confront the task in phases moving a pawn in the board, by throwing a dice, until arriving to the last place. Each time the pawn reaches or crosses a “Card Place” players must read an orange card which is indicated there. Orange cards question players along the journey, until the end of the game. These questions represent the main components of self-regulated learning process through its three main phases: before, during and after the task.
1st self-regulatory phase - Before the task (Card 1 to 7)
These cards introduce players to the habit of preparing or planning before actually trying to do something. This phase, which takes place before the task, can restrain students to act impulsively and in an unreflective way toward the learning task.
Card 1 questions “What is the task?” and demands students to acknowledge and define the task, thus clarifying its nature (e.g. “The task is to read the text ‘From the atom to the stars’ and to answer the questions in its end”).
Card 2 questions “Which is the task interest?” demanding a motivational analysis of the advantages of involvement in the task (e.g. “Knowing what is the atom and discovering something new about the stars”).
Card 3 questions “What is demanded?” and asks for a clarification of the external demands about the task (e,g, “To read and answer correctly to the questions”).
Card 4 questions “What is the goal?”, requiring a definition of personal objectives by using the task (e.g. “Comprehending the nature of atoms and stars”).
Card 5 questions “Which strategies and resources to use?” directing players for a selection of the means they find adequate to confront the task (e.g. “Identification of main ideas in the text”). This card also refers players for a helping resource (i.e. the “Strategies File”) which introduces them to a pool of learning strategies (i.e. deep and achieving strategies) for different tasks. Card 5 also asks “What will be done by each element?”, stimulating a distribution of roles within the working group.
Card 6 asks “How to use the strategies and resources?” demanding the sketch of a first plan (“Plan A”) on how to use the selected strategies and resources thus on how to concretely deal with the task (e.g. “Underlining the text”). This card also asks “What will be done by each element?” and “How to share information during the task?”, stimulating a distribution of roles and communication within the working group.
Card 7 asks “How to change the environment to achieve the goal?”, leading players to use their immediate context as a learning resource (e.g. “Arrange a round table to read the text in a group”).
2nd self-regulatory phase - During the task (Card 8 to 9)
These cards encourage players to monitor their implementation of the plan and to check for needed changes in it.
Card 8 asks “Apply Plan A and, during the task, answer: Is there advancement toward the goal and the plan is a good plan? If YES: How not to give up? If NOT: Verify again which is the task (see Starting Card) and answer: Which other strategies and resources to use? (help: see the “Strategies File”); How to use the new strategies and resources? (Plan B)”. Therefore, this card directs players to an implementation and assessment of the first plan in terms of goals attainment. The card stimulates persistency management, in case of a positive assessment (e.g. “We will make a break of 5mns and then comeback”) and redefinition of the task and plan, in case of a negative assessment (e.g. “Since underlining is not working we will try to write the text key words”). The card extends monitoring and a possible redefinition of strategies to the group work by asking “How is the team functioning?” and “How to meliorate team functioning?”
Card 9 asks “Continue to apply Plan A or change to Plan B and then comeback to the Game Board”, thus encouraging implementation of the chosed plan.
3rd self-regulatory phase - After the task (Card 10 to 14)
These cards prompt players for a final evaluation of learning products and learning processes, also directing them for new learning attempts in case of negative results.
Card 10 asks “The goal was attained? If YES (and the teacher confirms): Fill “Self-regulation Page”; If NOT: Verify again which is the task (see Starting Card) and answer: Which other strategies and resources to use? (help: see the “Strategies File”); How to use the new strategies and resources?” Therefore, this card orients to an assessment of the learning product in terms of goals attainment. The card stimulates a new redefinition of the task and plan, in case of a negative assessment (e.g. “Since writing of key words was not effective we will try to resume the text”).
Card 11 asks “Which is the evaluation of the strategies & resources?”, directing to an assessment of the learning process (e.g. “Resuming in round table was the most time consuming but also the most effective strategy”). This card also asks “Which is the evaluation of the team work?” extending assessment to the process of group work.
Card 12 asks “If the task was accomplished: How to use, in the future, the applied strategies & resources? If the task was not accomplished: What different Plan can be used to achieve the goal? (apply it and jump to Card 10 Place)”. Thus, this card invites for planning the transfer and generalization of successful learning procedures and orients to a cycle of new attempts and assessments, until goal attainment. The card also asks “How to use, in the future, the team work?” inviting to a generalization of collaborative learning.
Card 13 asks “In which activity experiment, in the future, the ‘Self-regulation Page’[6] (bring it later for a presentation)”, orienting players for the transfer of self-regulated learning competencies. The card also asks “In which activity experiment, in the future, the team work?” stressing the possibility of transferring collaborative learning competencies.
Finally, in the end of the game and after the accomplishment of the learning task, card 14 asks “Pick up an item from the “Surprises List”, allowing players to positive self-reinforce from a list of valued objects and/or activities.
The game is to be monitored by the educator, allowing him or her to scaffold, not to evaluate, the players and to stimulate a final discussion on the playing experience
D)Group work methodology (and products of work)
In the reported period the work methodology of learning modes working group involved:
1)Development of a theoretical framework for the work, based on literature review: concept of learning modes & of its relation to teaching in multigrade schools (paper delivered to the NEMED group and to be uploaded in NEMED site).
2)Development & testing, with two multigrade groups, of an educational resource that teachers can use to develop a self-regulated, deep & organized learning mode in multigrade classrooms: “The strategy game” (presented on June 2005 as “Self-regulated collaborative learning in the multigrade classroom: Introduction and testing of a game for developing self-regulation of approaches to learning” in “EDEN 2005 Annual Conference - Lifelong E-Learning Bringing e-learning close to lifelong learning and working life: a new period of uptake”, Helsinki: HelsinkiUniversity of Technology; Educational resource to be uploaded in NEMED site).