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Daoism and Confucianism
Chinese religion goes back thousands of years. The oldest religions are Daoism and Confucianism. Buddhism began to spread sometime in the first century B.C.
Daoist and Confucian ideas existed long before Kong Fuzi (Confucius) or Laozi (an early Daoist teacher) articulated these beliefs, but these men are considered to be the founders of their respective religions/philosophies.
Prior to the development of Confucianism and Daoism, Chinese followed a folk religion that had slowly evolved into a worldview. This folk religion was not based on any writings but was a worldview that influenced Chinese culture and society. The more important features of this ancient Chinese religion included a deep respect for nature and for spirits of deceased ancestors. The central focus of ancient Chinese religion was the pursuit of happiness through harmony with nature, ancestors, family, and neighbors. Community is more important than the individual. Other important features of ancient Chinese religion are: the existence of many gods and goddesses and evil spirits, ancestor worship, burnt-offerings, superstition, and folk medicine. The worship of ancestors is the worship or reverence of ancestors as spiritual beings to whom offerings are presented in the belief that these spirits can bring harm or good fortune. Chinese folk religion has also many mythological creation stories, stories of Chinese heroes, magic, superstition, and spirit and ancestor worship.
One of the Chinese creation stories is the story of Pangu. Pangu is god or a primal first being who created the universe. Before Pangu existed the universe was only chaos without light and without substance. In Chinese mythology they compare this chaos to a cosmic egg. Inside the cosmic egg of chaos slept a giant named Pangu. Then one day Pangu woke from his long sleep and as he moved about in the egg of chaos the egg cracked open and Pangu emerged from the chaos. The chaos also flew from the egg and that which was light formed the sky and the solid material of chaos formed the earth. The separation of the sky from earth is the basis for belief in the two opposing forces of the universe—the yang and the yin.[1]
Today, most Chinese are not Daoist or Confucian, or Buddhist. Most Chinese believe and practice traditional Chinese religion which is a mixture of folk religion and Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. Traditional Chinese religion includes the belief in a connection or relationship between people and spirits, the belief in the need to keep balance and harmony in these relationships, and the belief in following a correct way for people to relate to other people, spirits, and forces in nature and society.
Daoism
Daoism is the belief that life should rest in the energy that comes from the harmonious balance of nature. Daoists believe that intuition is the proper way to understand the nature of the universe. Traditional Daoism had no formal worship, temples, or prayers until sometime in the first century A.D. a priesthood developed, temples were built, and many rituals are now practiced by Daoists.
One of the very early Daoist concepts is the Yinyang. Yinyang has three main ideas. These three basic ideas have been the underlying philosophy for much of Chinese thought. The first idea is the harmonious nature of Yin and Yang. The opposites of the universe exist in harmonious balance. Yin and Yang are never static but they are constantly changing to stay in balance. The second idea is the interaction between the Yin and Yang. Yin and Yang cannot exist independent of the other. These two opposite forces are constantly interacting with one another in nature and in society between individuals. The third idea is the action or process of harmonization between the Yin and the Yang. This action or ongoing process keeps the Yin and Yang in balance.[2]
Another concept from Yinyang is Feng Shui. Feng Shui is concerned with correct aesthetics. Aesthetics is the science or philosophy of beauty and harmony.
These Daoist concepts have been written in one of the earliest Chinese philosophical writings the I Ching, “Book of Changes”. The I Ching is a book of symbols used to help people have success in life and help them to make decisions. I Ching is dated about 1150 B.C. so it predates the philosopher Laozi (founder of Daoism) by almost two hundred years. I Ching was a series of symbols that could answer questions similar to how some people use aaouijaboard. The I Ching or Book of Changes presents sixty-four life situations and gives advice about how to live in these situations.
The Book of Changes relates tells how to have a happy and successful life and explains that the way to this life is through contemplation and reflection to seek harmony. Another Daoist method of fortune telling is called fiji or spirit writing.
Kongfuzi also studied the I Ching and wrote a commentary on it called T'uanChuan(Commentary on the Decision).[3]
Another important Daoist writing is the Dao De Jing. The Dao De Jing is generally related to the teacher Laozi.Laozi lived around 800 B.C. about two hundred years before Kong Fuzi who lived around 500 B.C. Laozi(Lao-tzu) developed Chinese philosophy known as “Daoism” which are found in Laozi’s writings, called the book of Dao De Jing(Tao teChing) or The Way and Its Power. Laozi’sDao De Jing focuses on seeking harmony between opposites. The person who lives in harmony with the Way of Dao can reach the highest possible achievement. Laozi preferred nature and solitude to society and personal relationships with other people. Around the first century A.D. Dao De Jing was elevated to the status of a god and is now worshipped in Daoist temples. Then in A.D. 1012 Daoists incorporated Shang Di as the ruler of heaven into their religion.
A Daoist maxim is “Bend with the wind”. Daoists believe that to live with the Dao is fengliu which means to live a “wind and stream” life. Feng liu is the creative aspect of nature. It is the dynamic principle of Yang and counterpart to the static principle of Yin.[4] Daoism is a philosophy of life that says we should learn to live according to the moment and the circumstances of that day. Don’t worry about tomorrow. Don’t plan your life. Live for the moment.
Another Daoist idea is Wu-Wei. Wu Wei is the Daoist teaching that we can succeed if we proceed without struggle or to bend with the wind. The central teaching of Wu Wei is quietude. We can succeed without struggle. All things flow naturally and spontaneously from the Dao and we must simply flow along with the Dao.
Our information Laozi from Sima Qiana Chinese historian who lived about 145 to 186 B.C. Sima Qian was an administer of the official scribes of the Han Dynasty. Sima Qian is regarded as the father of Chinese historiography. His Shiji, Records of the Grand Historian are some of the earliest written records about ancient China. From his writings we have the earliest records about Kongfusi and Laozi. In the 1970s Chinese archaeologists discovered an almost complete text of the I Ching, the Dao De Jing,and other works. These texts were written about 200 B.C. during the Han dynasty, and are copies of much older manuscripts.[5]
Zhuangzi was another leading Daoist philosopher. Zhuangzi wrote a story in which Zhuangzi expresses pity to a skull he sees lying at the side of the road. Zhuangzi laments that the skull is now dead, but the skull retorts, "How do you know it's bad to be dead?".[6]
Confucianism
After Laozi came ConfuciusFuzi or KongFuzi. KongFuzilived about 551 to 479 B.C. in the Chinese province of Lu during the Zhou dynasty. The Zhou dynasty was a stable time in China’s history which lasted almost a thousand years. Much of what we think about Chinese society was established during the Zhou dynasty. Chinese believe that Kong Fuziwas born into a noble family, then after his parents died, he became a teacher. Kong Fuzisaw the societal conflicts and the oppression of the Fajiaschool and developed a better way for people to live in harmony. Kong Fuzi wanted to teach his ideas to others by being employed as a public administrator. He tried to find work in local and state governments but was unsuccessful. Kong Fuzi continued to travel in search of workas a scholar and political reformer but had little success and was only hired for a brief time. Some rulers even felt threatened by his teachings and opposed him. He spent most of his lifeignored and unemployed.
In contradiction to Daoism and Laozi’s emphasis on individualistic pursuit of the Dao, Kong Fuzi emphasized harmony among people and smooth personal relationships. Kong Fuzireturned to his home province and began to expand his small group of students. He taught them to seek proper conduct and harmony between people. Kong Fuzi’s essentialteaching is the idea of benevolence. He taught that by being kind to others society will achieve success. If people could be kind and respectful the world would be a place of peace and harmony. The goal of all life is to seek harmony, and the pursuit of harmony will result in a harmonious society. Kong Fuzi believed that people lack proper education and need to learn how to conduct themselves appropriately according to their roles in society. Therefore, our task in life is to learn these proper roles and strive to live a moral life. Kong Fuzi taught five types of relationships: the relationship between father and son, the relationship between husband and wife, the relationship between elder brother and younger brother, the relationship between elder friend and younger friend, and the relationship between emperor and subject.
Kong Fuzi’smost important writings are his Analects. The Analectswere not written by Kong Fuzi, but are a collection of sayings attributed to Kong Fuzi by his students. The Analects embody much of the ideas of Confucianism and they continue to have great influence on Chinese today. The Analectsaregrouped into twenty books or chapters. The oldest surviving manuscript of the Analects was found in 1973 and are believed to have been written around 55 B.C.
The two most important concepts in the Analects are Chung Yung (Zhongyong). Chung is the ability to remain moderate neither bending one way or another. Yung is the principle of steadfastness or permanence. A combination of Chung and Yung could be called a “state of equilibrium”. Chung is also the practice of fulfilling obligations to others. Sometimes Chung is translated as “loyalty”. Success is not the goal of Chung. Chung is simply living correctly without regard to outcomes. Chung is the effort to be a force for good for others. Your success is not important but the success of others is important. Another important concept for Kong Fuzi was “Shu”. Shu, sometimes translated as “reciprocity” is similar to the concept of the golden rule—do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
Shu helps us know how to live in harmony. Kong Fuzi taught that shu is a way to act towards others as you would believe you would like people to act towards you.
Chung and shu are aspects of ren. Ren isthe humane principle of compassion in which relationships are best expressed by obligation and loyalty. Ren is the overall concept of right relationships in which Shu—reciprocity—and Chung—loyalty are its primary features. Ren is the virtues of love and humanity.
Ren has two features: loyalty and reciprocity. The first feature of Ren is loyalty or a commitment to the Dao, the Way. The second feature of Ren is reciprocity which means to treat others the way you would like to be treated.
Kong Fuzi taught that to be an exemplary person you must imitate the Junzi. The junzi is the ideal person who treats people properly, is honest, hard working, loyal to parents and government, and studious. Kong Fuzi taught that man’s greatest problem is disharmony and the solution to disharmony is education by example.
Kong Fuzi dedicated his life to the study of finding the right path or right way to achieve harmony with nature, harmony with other people, and harmony with society as a whole—especially government. One of Kong Fuzi’s most important principles was filial piety. Filial piety is the duty a child has toward his or her parents.
Some sayings that are attributed to Confucius include the following: “A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step.” “To study something and practice it at appropriate times, is that not a great joy?” “Study the past if you would define the future.” “To see what is right and not do it is a lack of courage or principle.”
Although shunned during his lifetime, after his death Kong Fuzi became the greatest of all Chinese teachers and philosophers. This honor began in the Han dynasty 206 B.C. to A.D. 220 AD. During the Han dynasty an official government policy began to glorify Kong Fuzi. During the Han dynasty a new way of thinking that combined or blended together Daoist and Confucian concepts. The blending of these two philosophies during the Han dynasty is called “Han synthesis”.
Another important Confucian idea is the doctrine of the mean. Kong fuzi believed in effort but not strife. Moderation in all things is an important aspect of the doctrine of the mean. The main idea of The Doctrine of the Mean is to educate people to pursue a life of “self cultivation, self supervision, self education and self perfection to become an ideal person that is extremely good, kind, honest, moral, ethical and holy.”[7]
Other Chinese ideas and leaders
Tian Ming is the Confucian “Mandate of Heaven”. The concept of the Mandate of Heaven is still an important aspect of Chinese society. It underlies Chinese concepts of authority structures: children to parents, wife to husband, student to teacher, and citizen to ruler. During the Ch’u dynasty (1030 – 221B.C.) the rulers promoted the idea that the imperial throne was “in an intermediary position between heaven and earth.”[8] Shang Di is the Chinese ruler of heaven. Shang Di as the Supreme God can be traced back to the second century B.C. during the Han dynasty.
The three great teachers of Chinese philosophy are Laozi who interpreted nature, Kong Fuzi who interpreted human relationships, and Mozi who taught about relationship to the supernatural. Mozi lived 479 to 381 B.C. He founded the school of Mohism. Mohismemphasizes the need to treat people the way we would like to be treated. Impartiality and love for all mankind is important. Mozi argued against Confucianism and Daoism in that all action should be directed towards the good of the people. Mozi differed from Kong Fuzi by emphasizing that humans should practice love. Mozi taught equality of human beings and of states.
The Fajia school of China taught legalism and a strict rule of law and punishment. The Fajiaschool came about during an tumultuous time in China from 770 to 221 B.C. This time in China was a time of great cultural and politicalupheaval. The ideas of the FajiaSchool of Law or Legalism wasfirst taught by Han Feizi. Han Feizi was born about 233 B.C. Han Feizi believed that people cannot be trusted and need the government to compel them to act right. In contrast to Kong Fuzi who said humans can be trusted, Han Feizi, believed that man cannot be trusted.
The second teacher of Fajia was Li Si who was born about 208 B.C. Li Si was a powerful minister during the rule of Emperor Qin Shi Huang and later under Qin’s son Qin Er Shi. Li Si established a totalitarian rule in China.
Mengzi or Mencius was the greatest of Confucian teachers only after Kong Fuzi. Mencius believed that man was essentially good. In contrast to Mengzi, Xunzi another important Confucian teacher believed that man is inherently evil.
Zhuxiwas a leading Neo-Confucianist. Zhuxi’scontribution to Confucianism include his promotion of Confucian literature: the Analects of Confucius, the Mencius, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean.
Another important Chinese teacher was Zhang Daoling. Zhang Daolinglived from A.D. 34 – 156. He started a Daoist sect called “Tianshi Dao" (Way of the Celestial Masters). This sect was asecret society in which the members practiced faith healing and herbalism.
Japanese Religions
Shinto
The original religion of the Japanese people is Shinto. Shinto began around 500 B.C. The Japanese word for their religion is kami-no-michiwhich means “the way of the gods”. Kami-no-michiis an ancient folk religion of spiritism. Shinto is a folk religion which emphasizes nature worship, ancestor worship, devotion to gods and heroes, belief in the divinity of the Japanese emperor, fertility cults. The word “Shinto” comes from two Chinese words shinmeaning “god” and tao meaning “way” or the “Way of the Gods”.