Course Design in Distance Education and Related Considerations

COURSE DESIGN IN DISTANCE EDUCATION1

Course Design in Distance Education and Related Considerations:

An Annotated Bibliography

Laura Anderson

The Pennsylvania State University

August 4, 2015

Executive Summary

In the current landscape of education, distance education has appeared at the forefront of the discussion due to the opportunity of this mode of delivery to reach new and existing markets of students. There are numerous crucial variables institutions and administrators must consider when developing and maintain distance education courses and programs. This annotated bibliography will cover some of the relevant literature related to these key areas of consideration including program evaluation and assessment, cost-effectiveness, faculty development,Web 2.0 technology, learning styles and course design choices, and engagement in distance education courses.

Battalio, J. (2009). Success in distance education: Do learning styles and multiple formats matter? The American Journal of Distance Education, 23, 71-87. doi: 10.1080/08923640902854405

For this study, the researchers sought to investigate the relationship between learning styles, collaboration, and success in distance education by comparing students in nine sections of two versions of an online undergraduate technical communication course, one fully collaborative and the other self-directed. They also looked at the impact of course length, comparison 16-week and 8-week format courses. Success was measured by grades, interaction with classmates and course software, and student surveys. While there were no significant associations regarding course satisfaction between learner types, the results illustrated that a collaborative environment can help the widest array of learners. The authors provided significant context for their choice to use the Index of Learning Styles, although it begs the question if computer mediated learning impacts the ways in which how we learn is indexed. The addition of course length as a variable added one too many elements to the study, overcomplicating the findings. If the relationship between learning style and online delivery mode can be understood further, instructors and course designers will be able to design more effective and accommodating courses.

Betts, K. (2014). Factors influencing faculty participation and retention in online and blended education. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 17(1).

This article reviewed an institutional study at Armstrong University including a population of 175 faculty members, half of which who self-identified as having participated in online, partially online, or hybrid courses and half who had not, and four deans. The purpose of the study was to identify factors that motivated and inhibited faculty participation in online education, address institutional factors that inhibit faculty participation, and design faculty development programs to support faculty participation and retention in online education.Unique surveys involving intrinsic and extrinsic elements were given to the three groups and data was analyzed by SPSS via a descriptive analysis. The results of the study indicated that the distance education participants were very intrinsically motivated, while extrinsic factors were motivating for faculty who had not participated. It also showed that time, quality, technology, and technical support were top inhibiting factors for all three groups. The study's methods were well thought out and similar studies should be conducted at different institutions to reinforce the reliability of the results. This information can help to inform faculty development at institutions offering online or hybrid programs.

Cornelius, S., Gordon, C., & Ackland, A. (2011). Towards flexible learning for adult learners in professional contexts: an activity-focused course design. Interactive Learning Environments, 19(4), 381-393. doi:10.1080/10494820903298258

This article looked at a model of adult continuing education that provides the necessary flexibility and individualized learning that is most appropriate for this demographic of learners and how that can be accommodated in the current educational construct of social constructivism. The researchers reported on the outcomes of a year of development and design and two years of evaluation to refine the TQ (FE): Teaching Qualification (Further Education) model of education for adult learners at the University of Aberdeen. The pilot was taken by over 100 lecturers for continuing education per year in a three course sequence. The model provides the flexibility and both the personal and social elements of learning. The authors provided a thorough review the concepts of learning diversity, constructivism, learning communities, and reflective practices, which are the foundational ideas for the activity-focused model being used in the TQ (FE) model. Additional testing in different university contexts and professional training outside of the education realm would be beneficial to reinforce the initial findings.

Eteokleousa, N., Ktoridou, D., & Orphanou, M. (2013, July). Employing wikis as educational tools todevelop of a community of inquiry presented at the ICICTE: International Conference on Information Communication Technologies in Education, Crete, Greece.

The purpose of this mixed-methods case study was to evaluate how the Web 2.0 tool wikis can be used ascollaborative educational tool in order to achieve specific educational objectives and increase CoI. The researchers were also interested in better understanding the unique teacher and student roles, reactions, and contributions within the environment. Wikis were integrated into a literature course to deliver a fairy tale to 20, 5th graders. Data was collected through questionnaires, teachers’ reflective journals, observations, student interviews, and a CoI survey instrument. Analysis of the results showed that CoI was developed and the wiki environment had significant impact on cooperation, but not social presence overall. Teaching presence played a vital role, illustrating the importance of teachers in the integration of this tool. Online interactions and activities through the wiki enabled students to understand basic concepts of the lesson. As the specific details of wiki integration in education is still relatively unknown, this study helps to fill an important gap in the research of how Web 2.0 tool can be utilized. Further research should include larger and more diverse samples in order to better gauge how different groups respond to this tool in an educational setting.

Giannakos , M.N., & Vlamos, P. Using webcasts in education: Evaluation of its effectiveness (2013). British Journal of Educational Technology, 44(3), 432-441. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2012.01309

In this study, a 15-minute asynchronous webcast was employed in order to investigate the effectiveness, advantages, and limitations of an educational webcast compared with traditional learning. Two groups of 13-14 year old students with 33 students in each group participated in the study, one group utilizing a webcast and the other a traditional learning environment. Participant tasks to assess learning interviews with students, conversations with teachers and researchers’ observations were analyzed using a t-test method for each teaching group. The data showed that both teaching methods produced similar performance results but webcasts was more effective to deliver information and less effective in teaching complex tasks.

The literature review covered the potential of webcasts for information dissemination but limitations in terms of social experience of learning. The sample was limited to a single school and it was not clear why the particular age group was selected. Future research should test webcasts on other age groups in order to show more generalizability of data. The use of educational webcasts has increased, so research in this area is crucial in understanding how this technology can best be utilized.

Hung, J.-L., Hsu, Y.-C., & Rice, K. (2012). Integrating data mining in program evaluation of K-12 online education. Educational Technology & Society, 15(3), 27-41. Retrieved from ERIC database. (EJ992501)

Instructors and institutions rely on web-based course evaluation surveys as a primary source of information with which to evaluate online courses but self-report data is often not effective in measuring actual learning behaviors. The purpose of this study was to propose an evaluation framework using Educational data mining that can analyze multiple data sources and methods. This case study collected data from 7,500 students enrolled at a fully online K-12 institution serving over 16,000 students in a northwestern state. Data was drawn from LMS activity logs, student demographics, and course evaluations. Results indicated a positive correlation between engagement level and performance, reading behaviors were much higher than discussion behaviors, younger students took fewer courses than older students and female students were more active than male students and also had higher pass rates.

The literature review was scarce, providing little background about program evaluation or educational data mining, but did use recent research. Analysis of data beyond self-reporting has the potential to provide a more thorough picture to use in course evaluations. Institutions and LMS providers should consider the potential of their LMS in providing this detailed snapshot in order to produce the best educational experience for learners.

Inegbedion, J. O. & Adeyemi, J. K. (2012). Cost drivers in distance education: The values in Nigerian universities. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE, 13(2), 242-255. Retrieved from ERIC database. (EJ983659)

The purpose of this study is to determine the unit cost of the various cost drivers in Nigerian distance education and to uncover which element has the highest unit cost. The study evaluated the unit costs of student administrative support services, course material production, e-learning development, and presentation and ultimately uncover which element has the highest unit cost. A descriptive survey was administered at the two oldest dual mode universities and the only single mode university delivering distance education programs and gathered background information, student enrollment data, and information about the cost drivers being studied. Results of the study showed that student support services had the highest cost per unit, development of course materials had the lowest. The implications of this study can be useful for future development of new and existing distance education programs, to ensure that the costs are justified by the number of enrollments.

Irvin, M. J., Hannum, W. H., de, l. V., & Farmer, T. W. (2010). Barriers to distance education in rural schools. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 11(2), 73-90, 145. Retrieved from

In this study, the researchers examined barriers to distance education and factors associated with these barriers in small and low-income rural schools as they related to school district characteristics, course subjects offered at a distance, delivery format and student preparation, course completion, and satisfaction. Distance education in this context refers to a wide variety of approaches, including videoconferencing, online, and correspondence courses. Data was collected from administrators from 394 randomly selected schools districts that qualified as a Small Rural School or Rural Low Income School under the Rural Education Achievement Program. The five most reported barriers were not having a need for distance education (i.e., not needed for curriculum requirements), funding, scheduling, not being a district priority, and personnel not trained. The least mentioned barriers related to technology including maintenance and connectivity. The authors provided a thorough overview of previous research on barriers to distance education acquisition and limitations, illustrating the gravity of the issue for this demographic of schools who often rely on distance education as a necessity. Future research should include survey responses from other stakeholders such as faculty, parents, and students, as administrators could present a biased view which could be limiting to the findings.

Ng, K.-C. (2000). Costs and effectiveness of online courses in distance education. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 15(3), 301-308. doi: 10.1080/713688406

Evaluation of cost-effectiveness in online course development is critical for overall resource allocation, to ensure that limited resources are being utilized effectively. This article looked at the different costs of online course development and related research in order to consider cost-effectiveness of the educational mode of delivery. After identifying key areas of cost, the researcher assed a pilot online course project, the Online Learning Environment (OLE) of The Open University of Hong Kong, as a case study in the complexity of cost-effectiveness, in order to make suggestions on how to improve the cost-effectiveness of the project in future iterations. While institutions can save money by shifting costs to students, doing so can raise questions about access. Human capital costs and the cost of material redesign, particularly when implemented on a large scale, should be further analyzed. The validity of the article would have benefitted from the use of some concrete numbers in order to further illustrate the author’s critiques.

Oyarzun, B. A., & Morrison, G. R. (2013). Cooperative learning effects on achievement and community of inquiry in online education. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 14(4), 181-194, 255. Retrieved from

Thisquasi-experimental study of 34 participants sought to investigate if cooperative learning would 1) positively impact achievement for students, 2) have a greater effect on elements of CoI, and 3) increase learning satisfaction in online and residential sections of a technology course. Surveys were used to gauge students’ perceptions of CoI and satisfaction of learning, and achievement data was collected in the form of final grades. The results of the study showed that the cooperative learning strategy did not affect achievement or satisfaction of learning for online students, but did show significant differences in the subscales of CoI. The literature review, which covered cooperative learning and the community of inquiry, was thorough but the hypotheses lacked clarity in terms of whether the researchers were expecting the online students to be impacted in a greater way than the residential students in the three areas being studied. The lack of diversity and small size of sample was limiting to the broad applicability of the findings. The researchers’ mention of additional limitations and suggestions for future research was beneficial.

Thoms, B., & Eryilmaz, E. (2013). Introducing a twitter discussion board to supportlearning in online and blended learning environments. Education and Information Technologies, 20(2), 265-283. DOI 10.1007/s10639-013-9279-3

Incorporating theories of constructivism, social presence, and activity theory, Thoms and Erilymaz conducted a two-group quasi-field experiment in which they measured the effects of implementing the Web 2.0 social tools, Elgg and Twitter, into two sections of an undergraduate course. One section was fully online and the other was blended with 25 students in each section. The research was specifically aimed at investigating the impact of the new learning design on interaction, learning, and community in each course section. Student reported a positive experience using Twitter and indicated that benefitted interaction and community building, but not levels of perceived learning. The researchers provided a thorough review of the literature and justification for the technology selection.

While the study involved a relatively small sample, it did represent diversity in age and gender. Seeing the student ratings of the course broken down by age and gender may have helped to broaden the implications of this study. Future research integrating a similar model into a section of purely adult learners versus a section with traditional aged students would further illustrate the relationship between the technology and audience. Integrating Web 2.0 tools is an important consideration for course designers who are looking for cost-effective ways to promote interaction in an online connectivist learning environment.

Visser, R. D., Evering, L. C., & Barrett, D. E. (2014). #Twitterforteachers: The implications of Twitter as a self-directed professional development tool for K–12 teachers. JRTE, 46(4), 396–413. Retrieved from n/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080%2F15391523.2014.925694

Personal learning networks (PLN) are systems of interpersonal connections and resources that can be used to foster informal learning, collaboration, and knowledge exchange. The goal of this study was to understand how Twitter may function as a beneficial platform for PLN amongst teachers in a professional context. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected through open-ended and close-ended surveys given to 324 K-12 teachers related to how they were using Twitter and the perceived benefits of that use. The major finding of the study is that teachers use Twitter primarily for professional development and to improve classroom practice and that Twitter fosters a collaborative culture of community amongst teachers.The researchers provided a thorough explanation of the demographics and the Twitter platform aided in provided a diverse and random sampling of educators. However, the data relied strictly on self-reports. Further research could use content analysis to evaluate the Research in this area is relatively thin, so understanding the uses and benefits of this tool could provide new opportunities for inexpensive professional development for teachers.