Consciousness of history. Pupils' understanding of time in a school context
Nanny Hartsmar PhD
Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research, University of Lisbon, 11-14 September 2002
School of Education
Malmoe University
Malmoe, Sweden
Introduction
The starting point and source of inspiration for this thesis on children’s conceptions of time and the consciousness of history has been numerous meetings with pupils 7-16 years of age over an eighteen year period.
We tried to reflect over and understand the conditions of human life within different historical times and settings, discussing ways in which these conditions have influenced the present as well as contemplating over what the future consequences might be.
During these discussions, issues were brought to the surface in which the concept of “time” was related to specific meanings as well as being used as an overall contextual concept. Time is not a clearly defined concept. Understanding time and being aware of contemporary issues is essentially contextually dependent.
Formation of concepts such as “time”, “past-present-future” and the “consciousness of history” are essential in the teaching of history. The concept of “time” experienced in the context of daily life at home and at school is different from the concept of “time” used in historical contexts. Meanings related to varying contexts call for varying capabilities for handling the complexity of problems. In the teaching of history, abstract time is the focus of attention in a way that forces us to abandon the idea of time as experienced in daily living with clocks, calendars and timetables. The meaning of the “consciousness of time” is thus dependent on the teaching context used. Goffman (1981) uses the term “frames” to describe ways in which individuals in given situations use their experiences in order to understand a new situation.
My definition of the “consciousness of time” comprises three parts. The fundamental part includes the subjective experiences of time. The second part includes issues concerned with e.g. dating, time division and the measurement of time. The third part comprises what I call the consciousness of history. In regard to the consciousness of history I identify a dual relationship between the three time dimensions: past, present and future. Ways in which we (on the basis of our different experiences) interpret the past and the present and how we express our expectations of the future, constitute the essence of the consciousness of history.
Parts of the consciousness of time, as defined, have specific points of contact. The individual’s experiences of time are established in early life, in a historical and socio-cultural context in which dating, time division and the measurement of time are important components. The measurement of time as an element with the ability of putting events in chronological order is also contained within the consciousness of history. Parts of the interpretation of time bounded phenomena and events are due to subjective experiences.
It is not possible to draw a distinct line between the different parts of the consciousness of history nor is it possible to limit the development of consciousness to that which occurs within the educational sphere. I therefore find it appropriate to make a broad presentation with exemplifications from anthropology, ethnology, philosophy, physics, the science of history and history didactics, pedagogy/psychology, sociology, the biology of time and the geography of time. Life experiences and cultural heritage inherent to the life of every pupil constitute components of the consciousness of history. In school we are given the opportunity of offering confrontations between all kinds of consciousness of history that individuals may give expression to. These meetings I consider to be an important part pertaining to the continuing development of the consciousness of history.
A number of previous studies dealing with the consciousness of time and history are presented and discussed. Three perspectives dealing with the development of knowledge are focussed on: dominant trends within developmental psychology (Piaget), the importance of specific domain structure (Bruner) and teaching and learning within a sociohistorical context (Vygotsky).
In the present study I have chosen to concentrate on how the consciousness of history is formed when the educational context is in focus. Educational content and the ways in which the consciousness of history is shaped in conversation and writing are my main concerns.
Aim of the study
The main aim of the study is to explain how pupils’ consciousness of history in comprehensive school is formed and created by teaching. A second aim is to emphasize and to problematise the prerequisites for developing the consciousness of history through teaching.
Associations, essays and interviews – the three parts of the study
The empirical data consists of three parts:
1. Pupil’s associations to the concepts of “time”, “past” and “future”.
2.Essays (national test and evaluation given to fifteen-year olds) concerning the past, present and future.
3.Semi-structured interviews:
a)concerning history as a school subject (related to pupils and teachers);
b)testing the pupils’ abilities of placing historical events and persons along a time-line (studied in each class);
c)pupils’ reflections on the conditions of human life within a time perspective.
By using qualitatively different methods such as associations, essays and interviews my aim is to illustrate “time” as an essential content of knowledge. Using the terminology of Gadamer (1960) I hope to bring about a “coalescence of horizons”. By studying different age groups and heterogeneous school contexts the “coalescence of horizons” becomes valid within as well as between the different studies, when related to each other. My horizon of understanding concerning ways in which pupils in comprehensive school understand “time” meets and is challenged by the pupils’ own horizons of understanding.
I emphasise that it is not possible to equally relate associations with the pupils’ experiences of and ability to think about time. In verbal and written communication there is no visible or thorough result; no “truth”. When a process is started and an individual (perhaps for the first time) is encouraged to express his or her thoughts within a specific area, I cannot accept what has been said or written as something absolute or consistent. I accept the associations as some kind of first and spontaneous utterances. I consider these utterances as being a way of forming perspectives related to the reality concerning us all.
Bearing the interviews in mind, the associations are also intended to serve as a starting point for further reflections on time. The associations need to be complemented and deepened through the use of interviews. An already established contact between the pupils and myself hopefully facilitates this meeting.
By choosing to use essays as well as associations and interviews the pupils are given the opportunity of expressing their consciousness of time in longer texts (compared to only using associations).
The use of associations and essays is connected to the first part of the study, where the aim is “to shape and to explain how the consciousness of history of pupils in comprehensive school is formed and created by teaching”. By using interviews it is possible to deepen the perspective of the consciousness of history as well as giving me an opportunity to connect this to valid factors related to the second aim of my study. The second aim is to emphasise and problematise the prerequisites for developing the consciousness of history by teaching. In this way the teachers’ as well as pupils’ perspectives on education can be compared.
Survey of the study
A survey of the grades and schools participating in the different parts of the study is listed below:
Associations Essays Interviews
Grade 2, 5 (School 1,2,3) X X
Grade 9 (School 4) X X X
Groups of inquiry
Seven classes in three local comprehensive schools and one Montessori comprehensive school participated in the study. The schools were chosen from a socio-cultural point of view, as I wanted them to contribute with perspectives from heterogeneous school contexts. The Montessori school was chosen because of its special plan for working with the “time” theme. Grades 2, 5 and 9 were chosen for the following reasons: in Grade 2 formal history teaching has not yet started, although teachers and pupils work with historically connected content. Grade 5 comes in the middle of the comprehensive school period and these pupils have had some years of history teaching coupled with national tests and evaluations. When the pupils leave comprehensive school after Grade 9 they have had a long experience of history teaching. Using Grades 2, 5 and 9 will give me the opportunity of getting a good picture of the development of the consciousness of history throughout the comprehensive school period.
Results and interpretations
Findings from associations, interviews and the results of the national test and evaluation (essays) given to fifteen-year-olds show that the teaching of history for these pupils and teachers means teaching related to the past, disregarding other time dimensions. This past is synonymous with chronology and consists of objects, isolated events and persons with no links to either the present or the future. The concept of “time” as such (in all seven classes and four schools) is mentioned but seldom subjected to any discussion or deeper analysis depending on in which context it is used.
Associations to “Time”
I identify five different perspectives associated with the overall concept of “Time”. In the first perspective, time division, it is quantitative, objective and measurable time, historic time, calendar based time and the time of the year that is expressed.
The perspective of control is closely connected to time division and other quantitative aspects, since “being punctual” and “having a certain amount of time” presupposes something objective and measurable. That is, there is a time for everything. Associations concerning “time” display striking differences depending on the socio-cultural and heterogeneous school contexts. In associations like “one shall…”, “one has to…”, and “if not…then”, I can identify an underlying moral denotation. This perspective is especially predominant amongst the pupils in School 2 and mediates a picture of very controlled lives. For these pupils the subjective experience of time above all means stress and various duties.
The third perspective is motion and is also connected to clock time. While time division is related to the quantitative aspect, I interpret the perspective of value as giving expression to the subjective experience of how time changes. Value insinuates that “time is good”. This is explained by: “otherwise you don’t know when to do things” and “there would be confusion if time didn’t exist”.
Process is the perspective that includes life from childhood to old age. This perspective demonstrates a clear gender difference between boys and girls. Although both genders are inclined to formulate life in terms of a process, only boys refer to physical changes in the life process.
Associations to the past
Associations concerning the “past” in all the classes and schools bring forward enumeration's of content from textbooks. The age related differences that are evident are clearly connected to the three stages in school: years 1-3, 4-6 and 7-9. Each stage provides a certain content of teaching. In associations related to time the socio-cultural heterogeneous school contexts display certain differences. The same clear differences are not to be found in associations to the past.
In associations to the “past” five perspectives have been found. Historical phenomena and characteristics, remote past time and recent past time with historical persons, life as a process and a basis for a value-based political and conditional life-style.
The past was considered by the pupils as being either better or worse than the present and people then were not considered to be as smart as nowadays.
The perspective basis of values demonstrates clear differences between boys and girls. Boys talk about families “sticking together” and “not so many divorces”. This was explained with “it is safer” or “it is better for the kids”.
Associations to the future
The “future” is above all connected to the private sphere and is either looked upon with optimism or pessimism, or regarded as science fiction. No educational content is shown in associations to the future.
In the perspective “Future phenomena and characteristics” the dichotomy “better-worse” is reflected on in the same way as in associations to the past. Unemployment and a stronger economy are expected scenarios. Those in Grade 5 who associated negatively to work (“no job”, “almost everyone unemployed”) were pupils with a foreign background. Other perspectives are: objects and inventions, changes in language, words used to describe the future, the basis for a value-based political and conditional life-style, personal events, dreams and fears and life as a process.
Essays
Examination task 4. Tell me about how you imagine your life to be in 35 years time. How do you think a normal day would look like in the year 2030? Heading: A day in the year 2030.
Examination task 5. Imagine that you have a time machine and that you can travel back into the past. Tell me about your experiences there. Heading: Back to… (choose your own time period).
Examination task 6. Try to imagine the future. Imagine that you are telling your grandchildren about your life. How was it to be a teenager in the 1990’s? Tell them about your interests, things that make you happy, problems you have. Heading: How it was living in the 90’s.
Three perspectives are evident in the essays. 1) Events related to individuals with attributes characteristic of the time. 2) Events related to individuals and to the world around them with attributes characteristic of the time. 3) Events unrelated to individuals and the world around them with no attributes characteristic of the time.
Hounsell (1986) reports on how student’s of history view the task of writing an essay. Three qualitatively different apprehensions were found: a) “the essay as a discussion”, where interpretation is placed above data, b) “the essay as a point of view”, where interpretation is still above data but where a specific point of view is given preference to, c) “the essay as a representation” where data can be found without any interpretation. In this study most of the essays fit description c).
Interviews
In the following text some examples will be given from the first and third part of the interviews with students. The first part of the interview is about content. The pupils give examples of what has been dealt with in their respective classes.
In answer to the question of why they had dealt with a certain content several meanings were expressed. The dominating perspective of “we take it in a specific order” from the book or time line is exemplified by utterances such as “We had just got to… (a specific part) or “Well, you take it in a special order (through time), don’t you?”
By saying “My big brother has studied it too”, a boy expresses the power of convention. This perspective is closely connected to the perspective of order. In every grade things are studied in a specific order because that is the way it has always been done. Content-based canon that could be traced in the associations is strengthened by the interviews.
It is interesting to consider whether or not, if “we take it in order”, it would have any deeper significance to the development of the consciousness of history. Or does the arrangement of facts without conscious connections to people’s thoughts, ideas and basic values, make history appear to be like a flickering film? A film that is never quite understood. Ahonen (1990) and Booth (1978) have both illustrated that the consciousness of history does not develop if the teaching of history restricts the use of time to some kind of tool.
Another perspective is about learning in order not to be wrong if anyone asks you about something. This is expressed by: “…remember that Jesus was killed during Easter otherwise we as adults might think he was killed at Christmas”. This perspective is characteristic of facts connected to a key, as to some kind of “Jeopardy”.
A third perspective expresses studying specific content because the teachers find it scientific. Some of the younger pupils say that they simply don’t know while the older pupils refer to the book. Only one student in Grade 9 refers to the curriculum and says that his mother has told him that the Riksdag decides these matters.
The fact that convention decides what is to be done as well as not knowing why a specific content is taught, indicates that there is no specific plan for developing the consciousness of history. It is possible that teachers simply rely on the textbook author to decide what is worth studying. If something is learned in a specific order the consciousness of history is assumed to develop by itself as the students grow older. This I find to be problematic.
In the third part of the interview, examples are used of historic events and persons given by the students themselves, when asked to order them along a time line. The following example is from a boy in Grade 5: “Dinosaurs, then Judaism, then the Stone Age, then Jesus lived a short period during the Viking Age… not the whole time, a short period. The Viking Age began before Jesus was born. When the Viking Age was over Jesus was already born. Then comes the Middle Ages with the Plague, then (King) Gustav Wasa”.