Concept cartoons, teaching and learning in science: an evaluation
Introduction
Concept cartoons had their genesis in 1992. At that time, research into learnersÕ alternative conceptions was having an impact on the beliefs and practice of teachers and teacher educators. Although the research into learnersÕ understanding of science concepts was extensive, the literature revealed few teaching strategies which took account of this research. Millar (1989) concluded that:
. . . many teachers are now persuaded of the value of knowing about the prior ideas their pupils are likely to have about a given science topic . . . but are much less sure about how to act on this knowledge when teaching a class of 25 or more learners. (p.588)
Claxton (1986) and Trumper (1990) pointed to the limited attention which had been paid to the application of the research in the classroom. More recently White (1994) has alluded to the same issue in claiming that
. . . although the literature on alternative conceptions has sparked an interest in content, it has not yielded clear advice on how to teach different topics. (p.225)
The concept cartoons discussed in this article were developed in a search for strategies which could help to clarify the relationship between constructivist models of learning, scientific epistemology and classroom practice. The article reports the findings of research into the use of concept cartoons in order to evaluate their effectiveness in supporting teaching and learning in science.
The nature of concept cartoons
Cartoons have been employed in a variety of ways for educational purposes. These include the development of reading skills (Demetrulias, 1982) and vocabulary (Goldstein, 1986); problem solving (Jones, 1987) and thinking skills (De Fren, 1988); enhancing motivation (Heintzmann, 1989); resolving conflict (Naylor and McMurdo, 1990); reflecting on attitudes to science (Lock, 1991); eliciting tacit scientific knowledge (Guttierrez and Ogborn, 1992) and making scientific ideas accessible (Peacock 1995).
The label ÔcartoonÕ may be potentially misleading, since many individuals expect a strong association to exist between cartoons and humour. The concept cartoons do not employ humour or satire. They follow the form of a multiple choice question, but unlike most multiple choice questions the concept cartoons integrate written text in dialogue form with a visual stimulus. The nature of concept cartoons is illustrated in the examples given in the appendix.
In some ways the concept cartoons have much in common with some of the strategies used by researchers to explore childrenÕs scientific conceptions (for example Nussbaum, 1985; Osborne and Gilbert, 1980; Russell et al, 1989; Stavy and Berkovitz, 1980; Stead and Osborne, 1980; Watts and Zylbersztajn, 1981). In each of these strategies common elements exist which include minimal use of written language, utilisation of a visual image and often the presentation of alternative concepts or questions relating to one central idea or word. Extensive use has been made of the above strategies as conceptual probes in research. White and Gunstone (1992) discuss the effectiveness of some of these strategies in a classroom context in relation to assessment. Although concept cartoons are intended to elicit learnersÕ concepts, assessment of understanding is not their only or prime purpose. They were intended primarily as an aid to teaching and learning. As Gunstone (1988) notes:
The methods used to probe studentsÕ ideas/beliefs are also, almost by definition, excellent teaching/learning strategies.Õ (p.90)
The concept cartoons developed markedly in the early stages of their use. Some of the draft concept cartoons involved a single character stating a misconception. Whilst these concept cartoons proved stimulating and challenging to some learners it became clear that for others there was a possibility of reinforcing inappropriate ideas. Recognising the effectiveness of the use of a group of characters engaged in dialogue was a significant point in the development of the concept cartoons. The use of dialogue creates the opportunity to present alternative ideas, including one or more views which are scientifically acceptable.
The research literature provides an extensive source of alternative concepts which learners are likely to hold, enabling the Òmountains of examples of childrenÕs Ôalternative frameworksÕÓ (Claxton, 1986) to be fed into classroom practice. For example, the snowman concept cartoon (Figure 1) takes into account research by Tiberghien (1985) which indicates that children may believe that different materials have the property of being hot or cold. Other concept cartoons draw on ideas identified through interactions with learners in our own teaching experience.
The concept cartoons are located in a familiar context in order to cause learners to reflect on the science located within their everyday experience, so giving relevance to the ideas being considered. The significance of the place of the familiar in influencing studentsÕ learning is identified by Wittrock (1994), who expresses the view that Òfamiliar believable contexts and problems facilitate generative learningÓ(p.30).
Research Methodology
A set of concept cartoons was made available to a group of teachers and student teachers who were asked to use those which they felt were most appropriate for the particular learning needs of their pupils. Wherever possible, the concept cartoons were to be used within a normal teaching sequence. In the event, due to timetabling difficulties, 12 of the student teachers used the concept cartoons outside the normal science programme of their schools. Each concept cartoon was used on at least 2 occasions, either on its own or grouped with other related cartoons.
The concept cartoons were selected from a sample of approximately 50. These focussed mainly on light, sound, forces, change of state and living things. Some additional concept cartoons were created during the course of the data collection to satisfy particular curriculum demands.
Guidance on the utilisation of the concept cartoons was provided. The guidance material also included an explicit invitation to the teachers to use the concept cartoons in any additional ways which they felt were appropriate. Typically a lesson based on the concept cartoons involved:
a brief introduction to the activity,
an invitation to the learners to reflect on the concept cartoons and to discuss in groups what they think and why;
interaction and intervention by the teacher as appropriate during the teaching session;
practical investigation or research-based activity to follow up the learners ideas as appropriate, encouraged and supported by the teacher as necessary;
a whole class plenary to share and challenge ideas.
Data collection
The data were obtained through four main sources
Questionnaires completed by 51 teachers working in a range of teaching contexts. Of these 6 were higher education teacher education tutors (1 in a non-British university), 19 taught in secondary schools, 21 taught in primary schools, 2 taught in special education at secondary level, 1 gave advisory support for English as a second language with primary aged children, 1 was working with nursery aged children and 1 in an interactive science centre.
Questionnaires and more detailed reports completed by 85 primary student teachers engaged in school-based research. This was a compulsory part of their course carried out towards the end of their final year of training, after their final school experience
Interviews to probe the interpretation of the data conducted towards the end of the research period. They involved 3 of the above teachers, 5 pupils from one of the primary classes and two groups of five student teachers
Two case studies involving classroom observation of Year 7 pupils in a secondary school (Case Study A) and physics graduates on a one year PGCE course (Case Study B).
The teachers were all volunteers, identified through conferences and professional networks. The student teachers were included to broaden the sample beyond volunteers and to evaluate the use of the concept cartoons by novice teachers. Prior to conducting the research, the students were introduced to the use of the concept cartoons by tutors other than the researchers. The two case studies were selected on the basis that the learners, in each situation, were perceived by their teacher as being difficult or challenging. In Case study A the class of 11-12 year olds in an inner city secondary school were described by their teacher as demotivated and lacking in interest. Some of the physics graduates in Case study B were perceived as being over confident and challenging. In each case study the concept cartoons were included in the normal teaching programme.
The case studies provided an important opportunity for a degree of triangulation of the data (Denzin, 1970). Each case study allowed methodological triangulation through the use of different data collection strategies - in this case classroom observation, interviews with the teacher, oral and written feedback from learners and interviews with learners. Investigator triangulation was effected by the learners, the teachers and the authors each reporting on the same events in the case studies.
Response was requested to the following questions, with exemplification to be included where possible:
How involved were the learners when using the concept cartoons?
How useful were the concept cartoons for finding out the learnersÕ existing ideas?
How effective were the concept cartoons at challenging and developing learners' ideas?
How effective were the concept cartoons in relating the process of finding out the pupilsÕ ideas with the process of developing their ideas?
How useful were the concept cartoons for helping learners to decide which would be an appropriate investigation to test their ideas?
How easy was it for you to use the concept cartoons?
Are there other issues you see as relevant when using the concept cartoons?
These criteria were consistent with issues emerging from early pilot studies using the concept cartoons. They appeared to be relevant to the practical concerns of teachers and to concerns about the relationship between theory and practice in the teaching of science.
Information was also collected about the purposes for which the concept cartoons were employed, the age, nature and size of the teaching group involved, the concept cartoons used, the context in which they were used and the approach adopted.
Each of the 85 student teachers responded in detail to the above questions.
Detailed written responses, including fully completed questionnaires and some examples of work, were received from 34 teachers. The positive nature of these responses raised concern that only those teachers who felt highly motivated by the approach had responded. Consequently a follow up evaluation form was devised, setting the first five questions against a Likert Scale to minimise the time required to respond. An additional question was included about the value of the concept cartoons in promoting differentiated learning, an issue which emerged through the initial responses. This questionnaire was sent to those teachers who had not returned the original questionnaire. Of these (n=25) 17 completed the Likert Scale, some adding brief additional comments to exemplify their grading. On the Likert Scale (1-6) a score of 1 indicated little or no value and 6 indicated exceptional value.
The data is based on 149 teaching sessions.
Data and data analysis
The data presented an unexpectedly positive account of the use of the concept cartoons. Whilst problems were identified, many of the criticisms and concerns tended to be at the micro level (eg drawing style or style of writing). It is reasonable to assume that volunteer teachersÕ are likely to view innovation in their own teaching favourably. The students, however, were not volunteers, some being very sceptical about the use of the concept cartoons in their research with nothing to gain by discounting the shortcomings in the concept cartoons.
The data from the teachers and student teachers are discussed together except where it is pertinent to draw a distinction.
Learner motivation and involvement
In all 149 teaching sessions high or exceptionally high levels of motivation and interest amongst most or all learners were recorded. The 17 teachers completing the 1- 6 Likert Scales scored motivation at either 5(n=5) or 6(n=12). Factors such as the age, ability or purpose for using the concept cartoons appeared to have little influence on the nature of the pupilsÕ response .
The year 7 class in Case Study A appeared to typify the reported response of the majority of learners to the use of the concept cartoons. The pupils were observed engaging in deep discussion for long periods of time. In an interview with four of the pupils they noted their own increased involvement and interest and concluded that:
. . . even Dennis, the naughtiest boy in our class, wants to stay in at play time to carry on discussing. (secondary pupil - Case Study A 1995)
This perception was confirmed in a separate interview with the teacher. She stressed the importance of the concept cartoons in focussing the thinking of her pupils, an aspect of motivation which had been problematic.
17 respondents noted that the amount of time where the learners were on task was longer than they would normally have expected for the particular group of learners.
A teacher of children with emotional and behavioural difficulties observed that Òthe involvement was immediate and sustainedÓ (secondary EBD teacher 1995). 7 respondents referred to the apparent increased interest of normally quiet children. One teacher reflected on a usually timid childÕs involvement - ÒThe concept cartoons seemed to make her feel comfortable and confident.Ó (primary teacher 1997). Another found the strategy helped reluctant talkers because there was Ònothing to intimidate them and it (the concept cartoon) gave them ideas to start fromÓ(student teacher 1997). The high quality of the pupilsÕ written work and an improvement in the quality of the pupilsÕ discussions were also reported as significant outcomes.
Respondents attempted to give reasons for the high level of learner involvement. Many pointed to the visual appeal of the cartoon-style format. Five speculated that the Ônovelty valueÕ when first using the concept cartoons could be significant. However, repeated use of the concept cartoon strategy did not appear to diminish the level of interest, as evidenced in Case Study A where they were used regularly in the teaching programme over a year. Some teachers speculated that inviting engagement in argument about science is highly motivating Òsince it presents a view of science where all ideas are of worthÓ (secondary teacher 1996). It was also suggested that, for pupils reluctant to put forward their own ideas, Òhaving voices speaking for them gives them the confidence to discuss the ideas Ó (EBD teacher 1996).
Not all learners are instantly motivated by the concept cartoons. Observations of the pupils using concept cartoons in Case Study A revealed two instances where one pupilÕs domination of the discussion about the concept cartoon left the other pupils uninvolved. Similarly in Case Study B dominant students sometimes were able to inhibit discussion within groups. In the later case tutor intervention had a positive impact on the nature of the group interactions. The choice of concept cartoons outside the conceptual level of learner was also seen as problematic. A primary teacher noted one group of his pupils failing to make progress with a concept cartoon which was too demanding for them.
It is likely that there were more instances where lack of motivation for some learners occurred. Perhaps this was perceived as normal and was therefore not felt noteworthy. The teacher in Case Study B added weight to this view, saying that reluctance to participate was not unusual for the students and that it was worth considering why the problematic groups, discussed above, had ultimately engaged so actively. It is also possible that some of the novice teachers may have attributed lack of motivation to their lack of experience.
Elicitation
The data can be separated into two aspects: elicitation for the teacher and elicitation for the learner.
Elicitation for the teacher
All respondents felt that the concept cartoons had some value in making learnersÕ ideas more accessible to them during teaching sessions. On the 1-6 Likert Scales scores of 6 (n=10) and 5 (n=7) were given. Typical comments were
I feel it is important to know where the children are coming from. The cartoons were ideal indicators of where the children were in their understanding. (primary teacher, 1996)
I did not have to spend time trying to encourage them to explain their thinking and so was able to concentrate on challenging and supporting learning. (student teacher 1997)
An EBD teacher observed that ÒEBD children are very territorial with their ideas - the concept cartoons encouraged sharing and discussion.Ó She went on to note how much easier it was to access ideas Òwhen pupils are engaged in active and purposeful discussionÓ(secondary EBD teacher 1995).
36 of the respondents made reference to the value of the concept cartoons in relation to assessment of understanding. 8 indicated that their main purpose for using the concept cartoons had been the assessment of learnersÕ ideas. In both case studies the teachers were observed actively responding to ideas whilst the learners were engaged in using the concept cartoons. In later interviews both teachers highlighted the ease of access to ideas as a positive aspect of the concept cartoons. Four of the student teachers expressed concern that so much discussion was occurring that they were missing important opportunities to gain access to learners ideas and felt it necessary to limit the number of groups using the concept cartoons.