Access to Vocational Guidance

CHAPTER THREE

ACCESS TO VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE IN IRELAND

Mary Ward and Eimer Kelly

University College Cork

SOCIAL EXCLUSION IN IRELAND

“Poverty in Ireland today is about being excluded and marginalised from the general standard of living and way of life that is the norm for other people in society. Thus people are living in poverty if their income and resources are so inadequate as to preclude them from enjoying a lifestyle which would be acceptable by society generally. Such a definition takes account of the fact that people have social, emotional and cultural needs as well as physical needs” Combat Poverty Agency’s Strategic Plan (1993-1995).

Despite growing wealth and increasing numbers of people in employment, Ireland has failed to come to grips with some of its more intransigent problems such as widespread poverty, larger numbers of people being barred from doing meaningful work and extensive exclusion of a substantial proportion of the population from any meaningful participation in the life of our society.

Almost one third of the population lives below the poverty line. An even higher proportion of the nation’s children falls into this category. If unemployment is to be eliminated by the year 2000 we need a net gain of 437,000 on the present number of jobs available. In other words numbers need to increase by 37 per cent over the next five years if unemployment is to be eliminated.

Poverty has also been increasing. There are many more people living in poverty today than there were twenty years ago, no matter where one draws the poverty line.

Key Facts:

  • 21 per cent of persons fell below the 50 per cent relative income poverty line in 1994 and 34 per cent of people fell below the 60 per cent relative income poverty line - for a single person the 50 per cent line was about £65 in 1994 and the 60 per cent line was worth about £77.
  • There was an increase of 2 per cent in the numbers experiencing poverty at the 50 per cent line since 1987, and an increase of up to 4 per cent in the numbers experiencing poverty at the 60 per cent line.
  • While the numbers of households and people below relative poverty lines were higher at the 50 per cent and 60 per cent lines in 1994 than in 1987, the depth of poverty had been reduced, in other words their incomes did not fall as far below the income lines as they did in 1987.
  • Households headed by an unemployed person were the largest group in poverty, representing about one third of all households in poverty at the 50 per cent income line, and also faced the greatest risk of poverty - households headed by someone working full time in the home made up the next largest groups in poverty.
  • Children continue to face a higher risk of poverty than adults - the risk of poverty for children was almost 30 per cent at the 50 per cent line and over 40 per cent at the 60 per cent line - for adults the corresponding risks were 18 per cent and 32 per cent.
  • Ireland is one of the poorest regions of the EU; its GDP per capita being about two thirds of the Union average. The unemployment rate for 1997 stood at 10.2 per cent As in other European countries the rate is unevenly distributed. In some housing estates in larger urban areas, unemployment rates are up to 80 per cent. In rural areas problems of unemployment are compounded by underemployment and emigration.

In carrying out this research the primary source of information is a wide ranging study carried out by the Economic and Social Research Institute in 1987 and by the more recent survey conducted also by the ESRI, Living In Ireland Survey, 1994. The purpose of this research was to lay down valid guidelines for the measurement of poverty in Ireland; to estimate numbers in poverty; and to classify those most in poverty or at risk of being so. The ESRI found that, taking a poverty line of 50 per cent of average disposable income, 23 per cent of the national population fell below that line. Comparable figures for the other European countries suggest similar levels of poverty in Portugal and Greece, marking these three countries as a group with exceptionally high levels of poverty in Europe. The ESRI classified those living in poverty and at risk of being so. A number of broad categories emerged. The main groups living in poverty were the unemployed (33 per cent), farmers (23.2 per cent) and the low paid (13.2 per cent). The statistics relating to the Composition of Households in Poverty by Labour Force Status 1973-1994 describes the following groups as being in poverty: unemployed (33 per cent), farmers (9 per cent) although this group has disputed this figure recently, disabled (9 per cent), retired (10 per cent) and persons involved in home duties (25 per cent). Subsequent studies suggested two further important dimensions to poverty in Ireland. First there was evidence that poverty affected women disproportionately and that lone parents were at a considerably higher risk of poverty. Second, households with children were at much greater risk than households without children (23 per cent compared to 13 per cent).

Since this 1987 study the debate on poverty in Ireland has been gradually redefined in terms of ‘social exclusion’. Social exclusion is a much more dynamic concept of the processes of social change than poverty. Social exclusion draws attention to its underlying causes as much as its manifestations. It refers to the structures and processes which exclude persons and groups from full participation in society. By definition social exclusion flows directly from the economic policies and the choices which society makes about how resources are used and who has access to them. The forces of exclusion change as economies and societies change. Social exclusion takes a combination of forms - economic, cultural, social legal - with multiple effects.

Social exclusion can be succinctly described as cumulative marginalisation: from production (unemployment), from consumption (income poverty), from social networks (community, family, neighbours), from decision making and from an adequate quality of life. Social exclusion is one of the major challenges currently facing Irish society. It is not just about lack of money, but may also be about isolation, lack of work, lack of educational opportunities and discrimination.

The main factors which place people at risk of social exclusion in Ireland are:

  • Unemployment - households headed by an unemployed person are most likely to experience poverty. This is particularly the case for persons who are unemployed.
  • Disability - households headed by a person who is disabled are also very likely to experience poverty. In addition people with disabilities experience social exclusion, for example, because of mobility problems and the inaccessibility of the built environment. A survey of the members of one organisation found that 50 per cent are not involved in any social activity.
  • Large family size
  • Lone parenthood - labour force participation by lone parents is amongst the lowest in the EU
  • Social class – households headed by unskilled manual workers have a high incidence of poverty whereas professional and non-manual households have a much lower incidence. Links can also be identified between social class and educational achievement and between class and unemployment.
  • Gender – policies in relation to women which emphasise dependency, difficulties in accessing paid employment, the lower levels of women’s earnings and the lack of support for women in the home also contribute.
  • Low pay – Between 15 and 25 per cent of employees could be counted as low paid. Women are heavily over represented in this category.
  • Lack of educational qualifications
  • Housing policies – traditional housing policies that have concentrated large numbers of unemployed people have contributed to poverty and social exclusion.
  • Marital breakdown – this tends to lead to an increased incidence of poverty for the persons concerned, particularly for women and children.
  • Inadequate income from social welfare
  • Indebtedness to moneylenders

In Ireland the single biggest contributor to social exclusion, and to poverty, is unemployment. Conversely, access to work, to adequately paid employment, is a major source of participation. Thus the most effective strategy for the achievement of greater social inclusion is one which focuses, across several fronts, on increasing employment and reducing unemployment.

In the recently published Anti-Poverty Strategy five key themes central to the tackling of poverty and social exclusion were identified:

  • reducing unemployment, particularly long-term unemployment
  • Eliminating educational disadvantage
  • Increasing income inadequacy
  • Regenerating disadvantaged urban communities with a concentration of poverty; and
  • Tackling poverty in rural areas

The forecasts of the ESRI’s Medium Term Review (1997) predict that the next decade or so will be a period of exceptionally rapid economic growth and improving living standards. The scale of the expected increase in employment is such that the unemployment rate projected for ten years time is only about half the current rate of 12 per cent, and compares with the figure of 17 per cent seen as recently as 1993.

This would be a remarkable achievement and would in itself make very substantial inroads into current levels of poverty and social exclusion. The forecast is highly contingent, with the increase in employment in particular depending on continuing wage moderation. A crucial issue is going to be the distribution of the projected increase in employment, and the extent to which long-term employment is reduced. Even in a buoyant job market such as we are currently experiencing, those with poor education and skill levels may find it very difficult to escape from long-term unemployment into a job and the tax and social welfare system can exacerbate the problem (“The Benefit Trap”). Currently those who have been unemployed for more than two years have a 74 per cent chance of being unemployed one year later. This rises to over 80 per cent for men aged 25-44 and to 90 per cent for men aged 45-54. Certain groups could be excluded from the benefits of employment growth, remaining unemployed for lengthy periods or drifting out of meaningful participation in the labour market, with serious consequences both for them and for their children given the strength of forces transmitting unemployment and poverty from one generation to another. Among these groups are:

  • Disabled persons
  • Travellers
  • People in rural areas
  • Women

These groups will form the case studies for this project.

Disabled persons

The absence of overall statistics about the number of people with disabilities in Ireland and the lack of research into specific areas of disability makes this group particularly challenging in respect of this project. Oft-quoted figures concerning unemployment among this group suggest unemployment rates of as much as 58 per cent. There are several difficulties involved in compiling accurate statistics about the number of people with disabilities. These include the definition of people with disability: whether it is based on medical definition or on the definition favoured by the Commission, which is based on a social definition that sees disability as something that arises from a society’s failure to adapt itself to the different ways in which people with impairments accomplish activities. Another difficulty is that disability is a relative concept and therefore requires a cut-off point as though the degree of severity of disability (however defined) affects which would be included or excluded.

Even when cut off points and definitions are agreed, the problem remains of estimating the numbers of persons in the categories corresponding to the categories in the definitions. This would require a major survey of the population. A report from the ERSI suggests that the prevalence and incidence of disabilities could be estimated from existing data in three ways:

1) By reference to statistics on disability related income support schemes

2) On the basis of data from the census and from the LFS on people who are outside the labour force for reasons of permanent sickness or disability.

3) From the results of sample surveys in which people themselves estimate

a)the extent to which they are ‘hampered in their daily activities by any chronic physical or mental health problem, illness or disability’ (The Living In Ireland Survey, 1994) or

b)the degree of difficulty they have in carrying out certain daily activities

The area of mental handicap, or intellectual disability, is the only area of disability in which comprehensive statistics are collected systematically for administrative purposes. The Department of Health established a computerised national mental handicap database in 1995 for the first time. The statistics for 1995 show, in general terms, that there are approximately 26,000 persons with intellectual disabilities from mild disability to profound disability known to the Health Boards, of whom over 6,000 are children under 15 years.

Another approach to estimating disability in Ireland is to rely on estimates arrived at in other countries, including the United Kingdom, where comprehensive surveys have been done. However, the differences between Ireland and these other countries in terms of demographic structure, historical experience, economic conditions and public attitudes make such an exercise hazardous. Grannenos (1995) in his Disabled Persons: Statistical Data, published by the Statistical Office of the European Communities presents detailed tables based on censuses, surveys and administrative data in each country. Ireland is included but generally speaking the information from Ireland is not comprehensive. In relation to types of disability, the conclusions in the report are as follows:

Persons with an intellectual or psychiatric impairment account for 5 to 15 per cent of all people with disabilities, with a sensory impairment for 10 per cent to 18 per cent and physical impairment for 50 per cent to 80 per cent.

There is no reason to think that these general conclusions do not apply to Ireland too, although the relevant data is not available for Ireland.

The estimated number of people with disabilities, at 360,000 represents 10 per cent of the population as compared with an average of 12 per cent for EU countries. Half these people are aged 60 and over.

Travellers

One of the main groups living in extreme poverty in Ireland is Travellers. There are about 3,500 Traveller Families in Ireland, numbering about 20,000 people (0.5 per cent of the population). Travellers have their own language, intermarry among themselves and have their own social customs. They attempt to make a living through seasonal work, resurfacing driveways and trading in old cars, scrap metal and batteries.

The living conditions of most Travellers are seriously inadequate by modern standards. Less than half of all Travellers live in settled accommodation, 6 per cent live in prefabricated buildings and 50 per cent in roadside caravans. Only 53 per cent of all Travellers have piped water; 49 per cent have access to a toilet; 38 per cent have bath facilities. Poor living conditions are reflected in low standards of health: the infant mortality rate is three times higher than Settled people; 5 per cent of Travellers live to 50 and only 1.7 per cent of them survive to the age of 65 years. The enrolment rate of Travellers in primary school is 75 per cent; only 10 per cent continue school after the age of 12; the illiteracy rate of adult Travellers is about 90 per cent. Travellers suffer considerable discrimination, exemplified by the practice where many pubs and shops refuse to serve them. Most Travellers are dependent on social welfare; only a small number are in waged activity.

Traveller participation in the mainstream labour force is very low. Travellers can be identified as a distinct group in the long-term unemployed. In June, 1994 a survey was carried out by the National Association of Traveller Training Centres of Travellers of people who had participated over the previous decade in courses run by Traveller Training Centres which confirmed this low participation in mainstream labour force and a diverse range of experiences of participation in the mainstream labour force.

Reasons advanced in the survey for this low participation rate include:

  • Low pay and poor working conditions
  • Need for further training
  • Cultural factors
  • Lack of acceptance by Settled counterparts
  • Lack of support from the Traveller Community
  • Movement and emigration

Women

“ We are concerned that the Government should devise an approach to women’s employment which would reflect the actual lifestyles trends of women and so take into account such factors as: the growing participation in employment by women with young children; structural and attitudinal barriers; problems caused by a segregated labour market; and low pay rates of many women” (Second Commission on the Status of Women, 1994).

In Ireland where specific disincentives exist which discourage women in the home from registering as unemployed, official figures tend to undercount the numbers of women who would like to be in paid employment. It is estimated that approximately half of women’s unemployment is registered and this is one of the lowest rates in Europe (CEC, 1992, 1995). This is particularly true of Live Register figures. The LFS, which allows people to specify their own employment status and their social welfare status, is a better overall indicator of the labour force.