Chapter 6 Gender Comparisons in Social and Personality Characteristics
Social Constructionist approach—review of what this means; context of personality characteristics
Social Factors related to size of gender differences:
Gender differences largest when other people are present
Gender differences are largest when gender is prominent and other shared roles are minimized
Gender differences are largest when the behavior requires specific gender-related skills.
Communication Patterns
Verbal Communication
Talkativeness—Males more talkative than females.
Study by Spender: studied pairs of faculty members in conversation. Man spoke more than women. Men believed they did not have a fair share of conversation
Interruptions—amount of gender difference depends on operational definition used—exactly how variable will be measured
Successful interruption: takes over conversation, intrusive
Interruption: friendly comments in response to person talking, along with successful interruptions.
Status—power may explain interruptions in conversation
Studies suggest men interrupt more than women when conversing with strangers and in competitive task settings.
Language Style: subtle differences found. Men more likely to curse, more obscene words.
Women use disclaimers more when talk with men, less often with women. Men rarely use “I’m not sure”, “I suppose”. Depends on social setting.
The Content of Language: more similarities than difference found in study of college students asked to report on topics used.
Study by Wheelan and Verdi—professionals in work roles
Gender differences may become smaller as conversations are longer.
Nonverbal Communication: communication doesn’t use words---eye movements, tone of voice, facial expression, distance from others when talking. Transmit important social messages
Personal Space: invisible boundary around each person. Women have smaller personal space-zones than men; sit closer together. People in high status occupations occupy larger physical spaces than low status.
Body Posture: differences develop early in life. Females keep legs together arms and hands close to body. Males sit and stand with legs and arms apart. Men look relaxed, women tense postures
Gaze: females gaze more at person speaking with than males. (this difference found in childhood). People gaze at females more than at males. Uncommon to find prolonged eye contact between 2 men.
Facial Expression: women smile more than men do.
Social implications—smiling, and other social responses have an effect on person receiving positive messages and may produce feelings of competence in person.
Study by Hall and Halberstadt: social tension strongest predictor of smiling in women—smile when feel uncomfortable in social setting.
Men send different messages. Algoe study--Judging adults’ facial expressions—male photos thought to show more anger than female, angry female thought to be showing more fear
Decoding Ability: competence in figuring out what emotion person is feeling based on nonverbal behavior. Reviews of research show that females more likely than males to decode nonverbal accurately.
Difference found from infancy—girls better at visual discrimination of adults’ facial expression.
Gender differences found in decoding emotions from vocal cues—with fear, happiness and sadness. No difference with anger.
Individual Differences in Communications Styles:
expansivness: people rated as more masculine, rated as more expansive. Sit with legs apart, walk with heavy step and speak loudly.
Feminine style more self-contained and quiet
Potential Explanations for Gender Differences in Communication
Power and Social Status Explanation: men have more power and social status, so able to talk longer, use more space, and don’t need to smile.
Less powerful people listen, use disclaimers, and should smile. LaFrance and Henley—looked for why gender difference in decoding ability: low status ind.need to be attentive to powerful ind so can respond appropriately.
In US culture—men generally assigned dominant status, with more power than women. Men use more nonverbal patterns characteristic of bosses; women in position of submissive assistant
Social Learning Explanations: Judith Hall: in general, the more powerful students found to be more skilled at decoding facial expressions.
Culture provides roles, expectations and socialization experiences teach how to communicate.
Reinforced for using nonverbal behavior typical of own gender, punished for non-typical behavior. Girls notice females smile more often—gains social approval. Boys criticized if not “masculine”.
Girls learn supposed to pay attention to emotions, so develop sensitivity to facial expressions, to look out for others’ well being, to smile
Conclusions: both theories explain gender difference.
Characteristics Related to Helping and Caring
Men or women most helpful? Stereotypes:
Nature of Interpersonal Relationship—real life setting—women more helpful, and likely to “Talk over with friend”
Danger and rescue-men
Altruism-provide unselfish help to others in need w/out reward
Heroism: dangerous situation, risk life—men more likely to help
Less dangerous, still risky—more females
Social Role—shared expectations from culture about behavior. Gender differences from social roles men/women occupy. Expectations about women likely to take care of and be responsible to children. Men—larger, stronger—perform activities needing physical strength
Women as heros—less physical strength involved, more likely to occur in private
Nurturance—gives care to another, especially younger or less competent
Women rate selves higher than men
Blakemore study
Empathy—understand emotion another is feeling, and when you experience same emotion
1.Females and males are equally empathic when the operational definition requires physiological measures.
2.Females and males are equally empathic when the operational definition requires nonverbal measures.
3.Females are more empathic than males when the operational definition is based on self-report.
Friendship
Gender segregation in children
Self-disclosure
What friends do—similar for men/women; just talk; satisfaction also similar. Ideas similar on Intimacy—emotional expressiveness, communication skills, unconditional support and trust. most important is self-disclosure—reveal information about self.
Other studies suggest women value more than men—and that women more self-disclosing.
Women value talking about feelings more, greater training in emotions, gender related norms
men not supposed to talk about private feelings, esp with other men.
Women more likely to help their friends and type of help varies.
Characteristics Related to Aggression and Power
Aggression: behavior directed toward another with intention of doing harm
Gender and Aggression: The Social Constructionists’ Concerns
Considered a male characteristic—hit, shoot others. Each culture devised own set of lenses to view aggression, and how it is defined.
Physical Aggression—direct harm through physical action
Age 2—boys show higher levels of physical aggression
Preschool –differences shown—continue into adulthood—SES and cultures
Verbal Aggression—hostile remarks, injure self esteem. Most likely girls
Overt Aggression Versus Relational Aggression
Overt Aggression—aggression that physically harms or threatens harm
Crime Rates
Gender and Aggression: Other Important Factors
1.Gender differences are relatively large when measuring spontaneous aggression.
2.Gender differences are relatively large when the individuals know each other.
The Myth of the Nonaggressive Female
1. If women see themselves as weak and nonaggressive, they may believe that they cannot defend themselves against men’s aggression.
2. Because competitiveness is associated with aggression, women may be denied access to professions that value competition.
3. Aggressiveness may be seen as normal for males, so men may choose not to inhibit their aggressive tendencies.