Chapter 18: the West on the Eve of a New World Order

Chapter 18: The West on the Eve of a New World Order

Critical Thinking: In what ways were the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the 17th century English revolutions alike? IN what ways were they different?

·  The French Revolution: demolished the institutions of the old regime and established a new order based on individual rights, representative institutions, and a concept of loyalty to the nation, rather than the monarch

Toward a New Heaven and a New Earth: An Intellectual Revolution in the West

·  Scientific Revolution: effected mainly the elites

·  18th century- expanded to more of population through Enlightenment

The Scientific Revolution

·  overturned ideas that had been in place since the Middle Ages

Toward a New Heaven: A Revolution in Astronomy

·  Geocentric Theory- dominant theory of the Catholic Church…Ptolemaic Model

·  Nicolaus Copernicus- Polish-mathematician…heliocentric theory…Sun as center of universe..planets in circular orbits

·  Johannes Kepler: German mathematician and astronomer…orbits were elliptical rather than circular

·  Galileo Galilei: used a telescope to prove the heliocentric theory…published The Starry Messenger, condemned by Catholic Church and forced to recant

·  Isaac Newton: wrote Principia…defined laws of motion…gravity…World-machine concept

Toward a New Earth: Descartes and Rationalism

·  Rene Descartes: it is necessary to doubt as far as possible all things…proof of existence? “ I think, therefore, I am”

·  Cartesian Dualism: absolute dualism between mind and matter…using mind or human reason and its best instrument, math, humans can understand the material world because it is pure mechanism, a machine that is governed by its own physical laws because it was created by God- the great geometrician

·  Rationalism

Europe, China, and Scientific Revolutions

·  Not sure why the sci rev occurred in Europe, and not in China

Background to Enlightenment

·  Enlightenment: movement of intellectuals who were impressed with accomplishments of Sci Rev

·  REASON- scientific method to life

·  John Locke: argued every person was born with a tabula rasa (blank mind)…people were molded by their environment…Two Treatises on Government…natural rights- life, liberty, property

The Philosophes and their Ideas

·  Philosophes: literary people and social reformers

o  PARIS

·  Apply reason to everything

Montesquieu

·  Charles de Secondat, the Baron of Montesquieu…The Spirit of the Laws (1748)

·  Comparative study of govt…liked Great Britain

·  Separation of Powers: power should be a check to power

·  Used extensively in US Constitution

Voltaire

·  Francois-Marie Arouet/ Voltaire

·  Prolific author

·  Ideal of religious toleration

·  “Crush the infamous thing!”

·  Deism: build on Newtonian world-machine…implied the existence of a mechanic (God) who had created the universe…like a clock

Diderot

·  believed Christianity was “absurd”

·  Encyclopedia: 28 volumes

Toward a New “Science of Man”

·  SOCIAL SCIENCES!

·  Adam Smith- (1723-1790): founder of economics…individuals should be free to pursue economic self-interest…state should not interfere…laissez-faire (leave it alone)…according to Smith, government only had 3 basic functions: protect society from invasion, defend its citizens from injustice, and keep up certain public works…consumer as “invisible hand”

The Later Enlightenment

·  Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): 2 major works: Discourse on the Inequality of Mankind and The Social Contract…entire society to be governed by its general will…Book Emile was about education of a young boy- in woods “commune with nature”…let child dictate their education according to what they were interested in…did not see gender equality

The “Woman Question” in the Enlightenment

·  For centuries, male intellectuals claimed the nature of women made them inferior to men and made male dominance of women necessary and right

·  Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) Feminist, Vindication of the Rights of Women…arguing the hypocrisy of enlightenment double standards…why should women “obey” men, when it made them like a slave? Also, the Enlightenment was based on ideal of reason innate in ALL human beings

o  “Would men but generously snap our chains, and be content with rational fellowship instead of slavish obedience, they would find us more observant daughters, more affectionate sisters, more faithful wives, and more reasonable mothers- in a word, better citizens. We should then love them with true affection, because we should learn to respect ourselves; and the peace of mind of a worthy man would not be interrupted by the idle vanity of his wife…”

Culture in an Enlightened Age

·  Baroque: power, grandeur, and movement

·  Rococo Art- grace, charm, and gentle action…follow wandering lines of natural objects…highly secular

·  Ex: Antoine Watteau- lyrical views of aristocratic life…upper-class pleasure and joy

·  Ex: Versailles-combo of Rococo Art with Baroque Architecture

·  Famous architect- Johann Balthasar Neumann- Vierzehnheiligen

High Culture

·  High Culture- literary and artistic culture of the educated and wealthy ruling classes, popular culture- written and unwritten culture of the masses, most of which has traditionally been passed down orally.

·  Increase in written word, higher rate of literacy…ex: magazines and newspapers

Popular Culture

·  Distinguishing characteristic: collective nature

·  Festivals

Economic Changes and the Social Order

·  18th century in Europe witnessed the beginning of economic changes that ultimately had a strong impact on the rest of the world

New Economic Patterns

·  Europe’s population began to grow around 1750, and continued to increase steadily

·  Falling death rate…disappearance of bubonic plague, and improved diet…more plentiful food and better transportation of food supplies

·  “little ice age” dissipated

·  cultivation of new vegetables: Potato and Maize

·  “Putting-Out”/ “Cottage Industry” for textile production…early capitalism

·  True global economy: patterns of trade that locked Europe, Africa, the East and the Americas

·  Spain, Portugal, and the Dutch Republic became overshadowed by France and England in the 18th century

European Society in the Eighteenth Century

·  Society still divided into the traditional orders or estates determined by heredity

·  Peasantry- 85% of Europe’s population

·  Serfdom continued in Eastern Germany, Eastern Europe, and Russia…peasants elsewhere were largely free

·  Nobles- 2-3% of European Population- had dominating role…tax exempt

·  Patrician oligarchies in the cities

Colonial Empires and Revolution in the Americas

·  Portugal continued to profit from Brazil

·  Spain’s importance as a commercial power declined in 17th century…drop in output of the silver mines and poverty of the Spanish monarchy

·  Rivals- Dutch, English, and French in Western Hemisphere

The West Indies

·  British: Barbados, Jamaica, Bermuda…French: Saint-Dominque, Guadeloupe, Martinique…plantations with African slaves…tobacco, cotton, coffee, sugar

·  Sugar Factories- large output, about 150,000 tons of sugar/year…high death rate of slaves…Saint-Dominique- first successful slave uprising in 1793

British North America

·  Spain had claimed all of North America, but largely ignored…”prescription without possession availeth nothing.”

·  1609- Henry Hudson “discovered” Hudson Bay/River for Dutch 1609…1664- English seized colony of New Netherland and renamed it New York

·  Jamestown- 1607-first permanent English Colony…settlers barely survived

·  Massachusetts Bay Colony…religious freedom for Puritans (Calvinists)

·  British North America- 13 colonies

·  Part of mercantilism- colonies served two main purposes- provide raw materials for the mother country, and a market for the mother country’s manufactured goods

French North America

·  French in North America- 1534: Jacques Cartier “discovered” Saint-Lawrence River and claimed Canada…Samuel de Champlain settled Quebec 1608

·  Canada run autocratically as a vast trading area…furs, leather fish, and timber…thinly populated by French-Canadians

·  French lose Seven Year’s War (French and Indian War) and surrender Canadian lands to Britain in 1763

The American Revolution

·  mid-18th century: increasing trade and industry led to a growing middle class in Britain that favored expansion of trade and world empire

·  Prime Minister- William Pitt the Elder (1708-1778)…expanded the British Empire

·  Americans and British had different opinions for rule…18th century Britain- king or queen and Parliament shared power…Parliament appointed advisors to monarchy and had power to make laws, levy taxes pass budgets.

·  After Seven Year’s War- British policymakers sought to obtain new revenues from the colonies to pay for British army expenses in defending the colonies, the colonists resisted…Stamp Act of 1765 led to riots

·  July 4, 1776- Second Continental Congress declared independence from British Empire…Declaration of Independence, penned by Thomas Jefferson…Enlightenment ideas “life, liberty, pursuit of happiness”

o  French sent aid to colonists…French Navy blockade let to General Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown, VA 1781…Treaty of Paris (1783)- recognized independence of American colonies and granted the Americans control of the territory from the Appalachians to the Mississippi River

Birth of a New Nation

·  Weak Articles of Confederation to stronger US Constitution

·  Federal Government separate from State Governments

·  3 branches of government (legislative, judicial, executive)

·  Constitution narrowly ratified with Bill of Rights (1st 10 Amendments)

Toward a New Political Order and Global Conflict

·  Philosophes believed in natural rights, privileges that should not be withheld from any person…equality before the law, freedom of religious worship, freedom of speech and press, and the right to assemble, hold property, and seek happiness

·  Enlightened despots/ Enlightened absolutism: Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria

Prussia: the Army and the Bureaucracy

·  Frederick the Great (1740-1786): one of best-educated monarchs…invited Voltaire to his court for several years…king as “first servant of the state”…enlarged Prussian army…had best reputation, officers were members of nobility…abolished use of torture except in treason and murder cases…maintained serfdom

The Austrian Empire of the Habsburgs

·  Austrian Empire difficult to rule because is was a sprawling conglomerate of nationalities, languages, religions, and cultures

·  Empress Maria Theresa (1740-1780)- made administrative reforms…enlargement and modernization of the armed forces

·  Joseph II (1780-1790)- far-reaching reform program…abolished serfdom, abrogated death penalty, religious toleration, all equal before law…however, alienated the nobility and the church

o  Wrote his own epitaph “Here lies Joseph II, who was unfortunate in everything that he undertook.”

Russia Under Catherine the Great

·  Catherine II the Great (1762-1796)…invited Diderot to Russia, but did not implement his suggested reforms…1785 gave nobles a charter that exempted them from taxes…Russian peasant uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev (1773)…he was captured, tortured, and executed…Catherine responded with even harsher restrictions against he peasantry…territorial expansion into Poland and the Black Sea…3 partitions of Poland- Russia gained about 50% of Polish land

Enlightened Absolutism Reconsidered

·  Joseph, Frederick, and Catherine were all primarily guided by a concern for the power and well-being of their states…heightened state power was used to create armies and wage wars to gain more power

·  Hereditary aristocracy- still most powerful class

Changing Patterns of War: Global Confrontation

·  Europe consisted of a number of self-governing, individual states that were largely guided by the self-interest of the ruler

·  Seven Years’ War- fought on 3 continents…in Europe, British and Prussians fought the Austrians, Russians, and French…stalemate, ended in 1763

·  India- British, under Robert Clive, won out against the French…Treaty of Paris in 1763- French withdrew and left India to the British

·  North America (French and Indian War) Treaty of Paris…French ceded Canada and lands east of Mississippi to Britain..Spain transferred Florida to British, and French gave their Louisiana territory to Spanish

The French Revolution

·  1789- New Constitution for US, and the beginning of the French Revolution

·  French Revolution was very violent and radical..attempted to reconstruct both a new political order, and a new social order

Social Structure of the Old Regime

·  Divided into 3 Estates

·  1st Estate: Clergy…1% of population, controlled 10% of land…exempt from taille

·  2nd Estate: Nobility…2 % of population, controlled 25-30% of land…exempted from taille as one of many noble privileges

·  3rd Estate: Commoners…further divided with Bourgeoisie at top…inspired by Enlightenment

·  Opposition of elites to the old order led them to take drastic action against the monarchical old regime…Revolution had its origins in political grievances

Other Problems Facing the French Monarchy

·  food shortages, rise in food prices, unemployment

·  Louis XVI (1774-1792) seemed apathetic towards his role…wife Marie Antoinette from Austria…focused on frivolous things…didn’t have heirs right away, lambasted in press

·  Financial crisis, led to Louis XVI calling a session of the Estates-General (vote by order unpopular with 3rd estate)

From Estates-General to National Assembly

·  opened at Versailles May 5, 1789

·  decided on vote by order

·  June 17, 1789, 3rd estate locked out of proceedings, met in and made Tennis Court Oath, declared themselves the National Assembly

·  Storming of the Bastille- July 14th 1789- symbolic beginning of French Revolution, celebrated as Bastille Day in France, and Andrew’s Bday in the US

·  Led to peasant uprisings throughout France

Destruction of the Old Regime

·  National Assembly abolished the rights of landlords and fiscal exemptions of nobles, clergy, towns, and provinces

·  Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen: charter of basic liberties- proclaimed freedom and equal rights for all men…meritocracy…”Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite”

·  Olympe de Gouges- Declaration of Rights of WOMAN and Female Citizen

·  Catholic Church was reformed…church lands were seized…Church seen as enemy of Revolution

·  1791: National Assembly completed a new Constitution- legislative body had power, but still a King of the French

·  Jacobins: a radical political club, that wanted more extreme reforms for France

·  June 1791- King Louis XVI and family attempted to flee to Austria, but were captured and brought back to Paris…put under house arrest

·  August 27, 1791- Austria and Prussia, fearing rebellion spreading to their countries, formed the Coalition Forces and attacked France

The Radical Revolution

·  September 1792: newly elected National Convention began…abolished monarchy and established a republic

·  January 21, 1793 King was executed by guillotine

·  Coalition forces grew against France: Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain, Dutch Republic, and Russia

A Nation in Arms

·  Executive committee of 12, led by Maximilien Robespierre…Committee of Public Safety 1793-1794

·  Universal mobilization of the nation

·  Raised an army of 650,000 and fought back coalition forces