Chapter 12 Questions

CHAPTER12

Chapter 12 Questions

1. TracetheSui rise andfallfrompower.

2. CorrelatetheriseoftheTangwiththeConfucianrenaissance.

3. Tracethe decline oftheTangdynasty.

4. Compare the strengthsoftheSongEmpire withthe Tang.

5. Describetheaspectsofeconomicprosperity duringtheTang-Songera.

6. Describe the statusofwomenduringtheTang-Songera.

7. Appraisetheoveralleffectofthe Tang-SongeraonChinese history.

8. Describe the innovationsofthe Tang-Songera.

9.

ReunificationandRenaissanceinChineseCivilization: TheEraoftheTangandSongDynasties

CHAPTERSUMMARY

BasicthemesofChinesecivilizationunderwentvitalconsolidationduringthepostclassicalperiod.LessfundamentalinnovationoccurredthanintheAmericasandEurope.Importantdevelopmentstookplaceintechnology.Politicalturmoilfollowedthefall oftheHanduringthePeriodofthe SixDynasties(220-589C.E.),andthe empire’sbureaucraticapparatuscollapsed.Thescholar-gentryclasslost groundtolanded families.Non-ChinesenomadsruledmuchofChina,andaforeignreligion,Buddhism,replacedConfucianismasaprimaryforceinculturallife.Therewaseconomic, technological,intellectual, andurbandecline.Newdynasties, theSuiandTang,fromtheendofthe6thcentury broughtarestorationofChinesecivilization.Politicalunityreturnedasnomadsandnobilitywerebroughtunderstatecontrol andthebureaucracywasrebuilt.Major changesoccurredineconomicandsociallifeasthefocusofarevivedcivilizationshiftedfromthe northtotheYangzivalleyandsouthern andeastern coastal areas.TheSongdynastycontinuedtherevival;their era saw the restorationofthescholar-gentryandtheConfucianorder.It wasa time ofartistic,literary,andtechnologicalflourishing.Maledominancereachednewheights.

Rebuildingthe ImperialEdifice inthe Sui-TangEras. Anoble,Wendi,withthesupportofnomadicmilitaryleaders, woncontrolofnorthernChina. In 589, hedefeatedtheChenkingdom,whichruledmuchoftheSouth, andestablishedtheSuidynastyasruler of thetraditional Chinesecore.Wendiwonpopularitybyloweringtaxesand establishinggranariestoensureastable,cheapfoodsupply.

Sui Excessesand Collapse.Wendi’sson Yangdicontinuedstrengtheningthestatebyfurtherconquestsandvictoriesover nomads.HereformedthelegalcodeandtheConfucianeducationalsystem.Thescholar-gentrywerebroughtbackintotheimperialadministration.Yangdiundertookextensiveandexpensiveconstructionprojectsatanewcapital,Loyang,andfora seriesofcanalsto linkthe empire.He attemptedunsuccessfullytoconquerKorea,andwasdefeatedbyTurkicnomadsincentralAsiain615.Widespreadrevoltsfollowed.ImperialrulecrumbledandYangdiwasassassinatedin618.

TheEmergenceoftheTang andtheRestorationofthe Empire.Imperial unitywassavedwhen LiYuan,Duke of Tang and aformersupporteroftheSui,woncontrolofChina andbegantheTangdynasty.Tangarmiesextendedtheempire’sreachtothebordersofAfghanistanandthusdominatedthenomadsofthefrontierborderlands.TheTangusedTurkicnomadsin theirmilitaryandtriedtoassimilatethem intoChineseculture.TheGreatWallwasrepaired.TheextensiveTangEmpirestretchedintoTibet,Vietnam, Manchuria,andKorea.

RebuildingtheBureaucracy.Arestoredscholar-gentryeliteandreworkedConfucianideologyhelpedtheTangtomaintainimperialunity.The power ofthearistocracy wasreduced.Politicalauthorityhenceforthwassharedbyimperialfamiliesandscholar-gentrybureaucrats.The

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bureaucracy, subjecttostrictcontrols,reachedfromtheimperialcourttodistrict levelsofadministration.ABureauof Censorswatchedallofficials.

The Growing Importance of the ExaminationSystem.UndertheTang andSong,thenumbersofscholar-gentryrosefar aboveHanlevels.Theygreatlyextendedtheexaminationsystem, andcivilserviceadvancementpatternswereregularized.SpecializedexamswereadministeredbytheMinistryofPublicRites.ThehighestofficeswentonlytoindividualsabletopassexamsbasedontheConfucian classicsandChineseliterature.Additionalexamsdeterminedtheirrankinginthepooleligibleforofficeandawardedspecialsocialstatus.Birthandfamilyconnectionsremainedimportantforgaininghighoffice.Intelligentcommonersmightrisetohighpositions,butthecentraladministrationwasdominatedbyasmallnumberofprominentfamilies.

StateandReligionintheTang-SongEra.TheConfucianrevivalthreatenedBuddhism’splacein Chinese life.Many previousrulershadbeen strong Buddhist supporters.Chinese monksgavetheforeignreligionChinesequalities.SalvationistMahayanaBuddhismwonwidemassacceptanceduringtheeraofwarandturmoil.EliteChinese acceptedChanBuddhism,or Zen,whichstressedmeditationandappreciationofnaturalandartisticbeauty.EarlyTangrulerscontinuedtopatronizeBuddhism, especiallyEmpressWu(690-705).Sheendowedmonasteries,commissionedcolossalstatuesofBuddha, andsoughttomakeBuddhismthestatereligion.

Therewereabout50,000monasteriesbythemiddle of the9th century.

TheAnti-BuddhistBacklash.Confuciansand Daoistsopposed Buddhist growth, castigatingitasanalienfaith.Daoistsstressed theirmagical and predictivepowers.Confucianscholar-administratorsworkedtoconvincetheTangthatuntaxedBuddhistmonasteriesposedaneconomicthreattotheempire.Measurestolimit land andresourcesgoingtoBuddhistsgave waytoopenpersecutionunderEmperorWuzong(841-847).Thousandsofmonasteriesandshrinesweredestroyed; hundredsofthousands ofmonksand nunshad toreturnto secularlife.Buddhistlandsweretaxedorredistributedtotaxpayingnoblesandpeasants.Buddhismsurvivedthepersecutions, butinamuchreducedcondition.ConfucianismemergedastheenduringcentralideologyofChinesecivilization.

Tang DeclineandtheRiseofthe Song.Thereign ofEmperorXuanzong (713-756)marked thezenithofTang power.Heinitiallyadvancedpolitical andeconomicreform;laterheturnedtopatronizingtheartsandthepleasuresoftheimperialcity.Xuanzongbecameinfatuatedwithanimperialharemwoman,YangGuifei.Shefilledupper levelsof governmentwithherrelativesandgainedauthorityincourtpolitics.Rivalcliquesstimulatedunrest, whilelackofroyaldirectioncaused economicdistressandmilitaryweakness.Aseriousrevoltoccurredin755.

Therebelsweredefeated,andYangGuifeiwaskilled,butXuanzongand succeedingrulersprovidedweakleadershipfor thedynasty.Nomadic frontierpeoplesandregionalgovernorsusedthedisordertogainvirtualindependence.Worseningeconomicconditionsinthe9thcenturycausedmanyrevolts, some of thempopularmovementsledbypeasants.

TheFoundingoftheSongDynasty.ThelastTangemperorresigned in907,but,afteraperiodofturmoil,amilitarycommander,ZhaoKuangyin,renamedTaizu, in960reunitedChinaunderonedynasty,theSong.HisfailuretodefeattheLiao dynasty ofManchuria,founded byKhitannomadsin907,establishedalastingprecedentforweaknessindealingwithnorthernnomadic

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peoples.EnsuingmilitaryvictoriesbytheKhitansledtothepaying ofheavytributetotheLiao,whobecameverymuchinfluencedbyChineseculture.

SongPolitics:SettlingforPartialRestoration.TheSongnevermatchedtheTanginpoliticalormilitarystrength.Toprevent areturnoftheconditionsending Tangrule,themilitarywassubordinatedtoscholar-gentrycivilians.Songrulersstronglypromotedtheinterestsof theConfucianscholar-gentryclassoveraristocraticandBuddhistrivals.Salarieswereincreased,civilserviceexamsweremaderoutine, andsuccessfulcandidateshadabetterchanceforemployment.

TheRevivalof ConfucianThought.Confucianideasandvaluesdominatedintellectuallife.Long-neglectedtextswererecovered;newacademiesfor thestudyofthe classicsand impressivelibrarieswerefounded.ManythinkerslaboredtoproducedifferinginterpretationsofConfucianandDaoistthoughtandtoprovethesuperiorityofindigenousthought.Themostprominentneo-Confucianist,ZhuXi, emphasizedtheimportanceofapplyingphilosophicalprinciplestoeverydaylife.Neo-Confuciansbelievedthatthecultivationofpersonalmoralitywasthehighesthumangoal.Confucianlearning, theyargued,producedsuperiormentogovernandteach others.Neo-Confucianthinkinghadalastingeffect onintellectuallife.Hostilitytoforeignthoughtpreventedtheentry ofinnovationsfromothersocieties, whilethestressontraditionstifledcriticalthinkingwithinChina.Neo-Confucianemphasisonrank,obligation,deference,andperformanceofritualsreinforcedclass,gender,andagedistinctions.Theauthorityofthepatriarchalfamilyheadwasstrengthened.Socialharmonyandprosperity, claimedneo-Confucianists,wasmaintainedwhenmenandwomenperformedthetasksappropriatetotheirstatus.

Rootsof Decline:AttemptsatReform.Song weaknessbeforetheKhitanencouraged othernomadstocarveoutkingdomsonthenorthernborders.TheTangutfromTibetestablishedthekingdomofXiXia,southwest ofLiao.TheSongpaid themand other peoplestribute andmaintainedalargearmytoprotectagainstinvasion, thusdrainingstateresourcesandburdeningthepeasantry.Songemphasisonscholar-gentryconcernscontributedtomilitarydecline.

Confucianscholarandchiefminister WangAnshiattemptedsweepingreformsinthelate11thcentury.Heusedlegalistprinciplesandencouragedagriculturalexpansionthroughcheaploansandgovernment-assistedirrigationprojects.Thelandlordandscholar-gentryweretaxed, andtherevenueswentformilitaryreform.WangAnshieven attemptedtorevitalizetheeducationalsystembygivingpreferencetoanalyticalskills.

ReactionandDisaster:TheFlighttothe South.Whenthe emperorsupportingWang Anshidiedin 1085,hissuccessor favoredconservativesopposingreform.Neo-Confucianistsgainedpower andreversedWang’spolicies.Economicconditionsdeteriorated,andthemilitarywasunabletodefend thenorthernborders.The nomadicJurchens,after overthrowingLiao,in1115establishedtheQinkingdom.TheyinvadedChinaandannexedmost oftheYellowRiver basin.TheSongfled south andestablished a capitalat Huangzhouin theYangziRiverbasin.Thesmall southern Songdynastyruled from 1127to 1279.

Tang andSongProsperity: TheBasisofa GoldenAge.TheSui andTang hadbuiltcanalsbecauseofamajorshiftinChinesepopulationbalance.Yangdi’sGrandCanal,eventuallymorethan1,200mileslong,linkedtheoriginalcivilizationcentersoftheNorthwiththeYangziRiver

basin.Therice-growingregions of theSouth became themajorfoodproducersofthe empire.ByearlySongtimes,theSouthwastheleaderincrop productionandpopulation.ThecanalsystemmadegovernmentoftheSouthbynortherncapitalspossible.FoodfromtheSouthcouldbedistributedintheNorth,whiletheSouthwasopened tomigrationand commercialdevelopment.

The World’s MostSplendidCities. UrbangrowthsurgedduringtheTangandSongeras.The2millioninhabitantsoftheTangcapitalofChanganmadeittheworld’slargest city.Other citiessimilarlygrew;manyhadmorethan100,000inhabitants.Mostpreindustrialcivilizationshadfewor nolargeurbancenters,andChina’sestimatedurbanpopulation—10percentofthetotalpopulation—surpassedallothers.ThelateSongcapitalofHuangzhouexceededallothersinbeauty,size,andsophistication.ItslocationneartheYangziandtheseacoastallowedtraders andartisanstoprosper.Itspopulation ofmorethan 1,500,000enjoyedwell-stockedmarketplaces,parks,restaurants,teahouses,andpopularentertainment.

ExpandingAgrarianProductionandLifeintheCountry.Tang andSongrulers pushedagriculturalexpansion.Peasantswereencouragedtomigratetonewareaswherethestatesupportedmilitarygarrisonsandprovidedirrigationandembankmentsystems.Thecanalsenabledtheirproducetomovethroughtheempire.Newcropsandtechnologyincreasedyields.SuiandTangrulersadoptedpoliciesdesignedtobreakuparistocraticestatesformoreequitabledistributionamongfreepeasants, theclassConfucianscholarsheldtobe essentialforastableandprosperoussocialorder.Thescholar-gentrygraduallysupplantedthearistocracyinruralsociety.

FamilyandSocietyintheTang-Song Era.Familyorganizationresembled thatofearliereras.Thestatusofwomenwasimprovingunder theTangandearlySongbutsteadilydeclinedduringthelateSong.Extended-familyhouseholdswerepreferred,althoughonlytheupperclasses couldaffordthem.TheConfucianistmale-dominatedhierarchywascommoninallclasses.Anelaborateprocessofmakingmarriageallianceswashandledbyprofessionalfemalego-betweens.Partnerswereofthesame age;marriageceremoniesdidnottakeplaceuntil puberty.Urbanclassesconsummatedmarriagelater thanpeasants.Upper-classwomenhadincreasedopportunitiesforpersonalexpressionandcareer possibilitiesunder theTangandearlySong.

TheempressesWuandWei, androyalconcubineYangGuifei,exercisedconsiderablepower.Thelegalcodehadprovisionssupportingwomen’srightsindivorcearrangements.Thepracticeofwealthyurbanwomenhavingloversisanexampleoffemaleindependence.

TheNeo-ConfucianAssertion ofMale Dominance.Theindependenceand legalrightsofeliteminority ofwomen worsenedundertheinfluenceof neo-Confucianthinkers.Theystressedtherolesofhomemakerandmother;advocatedphysicalconfinementofwomen;andemphasizedtheimportanceofbridalvirginity, wifelyfidelity,andwidowchastity.Men werepermittedfreesexualbehavior andremarriage.ThedeclineoftheopportunitiesonceopeninBuddhismalsocontributedtothedeterioratedstatusofwomen.Newlawsfavoredmenininheritanceanddivorce,andwomenwereexcludedfromtheeducationalsystem.Thepainful,mobility-restrictingpracticeoffootbindingexemplifiesthelowlypositionimposedonwomeninlate Songtimes.

In Depth:ArtisticExpression andSocial Values.Examiningartisticcreativityisaneffectiveapproachfor studyingthevaluesofacivilization.Inpreliterate societies,artandarchitectureprovideevidenceotherwiselacking.Whencivilizationshavewrittenrecords,westillcanlearnaboutsocialstructureby discovering who produced art,forwhomitwascreated,thetechnologiesandmaterialsused,andthemessages it wasmeantto convey.InIndianand Europeansocieties,artisticcreationsweretheworkofskilledcraftsmen, aroleplayedinChinabythescholar-gentryclass.Indian, Muslim,andEuropeanartisansmadeanonymouscreationsforamassaudience.InChina,identifiable individualsproducedartforthe pleasuresoftheelite.

AGloriousAge:Invention and ArtisticCreativity.TheTang andSong periodsaremostrememberedfortheiraccomplishmentsinscience,technology,literature,andthefinearts.Technologicalandscientificdiscoveries—newtools,productionmethods,weapons—passedtoothercivilizationsandalteredthecourseofhumandevelopment.Theartsandliteraturepassed toneighboringregions—centralAsia,Japan, andVietnam.Engineeringfeats, suchastheGrandCanal, dikesanddams,irrigationsystems,andbridges, wereespecially noteworthy.Newagriculturalimplementsandinnovations,suchasbanksandpapermoney,stimulatedprosperity.ExplosivepowderwasinventedundertheTang;itwasusedfor fireworksuntilthe Songadapteditto militaryuse.Songarmiesandnaviesalsoused naphtha flamethrowers,poisonousgasses,androcket launchers.On thedomestic side,chairs,teadrinking,theuse ofcoalforfuel,andkiteswereintroduced.Compasseswereappliedtooceannavigation, andtheabacushelpednumericalfiguring.Inthe11thcentury,theartisan BiShengdevisedprintingwithmovabletype. CombinedwiththeChineseinventionofpaper, printingallowedaliteracylevelhigher thanthatinanyotherpreindustrialcivilization.

ScholarlyRefinement andArtisticAccomplishment.Thereinvigoratedscholar-gentryclasswasresponsible for artandliterary creativity.Well-educatedmenweresupposed tobegeneralistscapableofbothofficialandartisticachievement.Asthescholar-gentryreplacedBuddhistsasmajorartandliteratureproducers,theyturnedtoportrayingdailylifeandthedelightsofnature.Literaturefocusedonthe doingsandbeliefsofcommonpeople.Poets,such asLi Bo,celebratedthenaturalworld.UndertheSong,interestinnaturereached artisticfruitioninsymboliclandscapepaintings, manyaccompaniedbypoems,thatsoughttoteachmoral lessonsorexplorephilosophicalideas.

GlobalConnections: China’sWorld Role.TheSongdynasty felltotheMongol invasionsinauguratedbyChinggisKhan.KubilaiKhancompletedtheconquest andfoundedtheYuandynasty. TheTangand Songdynastieshad a greateffect onbothChinese and worldhistory.Centralizedadministrationandthebureaucraticapparatuswererestoredandstrengthened.Thescholar-gentryelitetriumphedoverBuddhist,aristocratic,andnomadicrivals.TheydefinedChinesecivilizationfor thenext sixandahalfcenturies.Theareasubject toChinesecivilizationexpandeddramatically, astheSouthwasintegratedwiththeNorth.TheChineseeconomy, untilthe18thcentury, wasaworldleaderinmarketorientation, overseastradevolume, productivityperacre, sophisticationof tools,andtechniquesofcraftproduction.Chineseinventionsaltereddevelopmentallovertheworld.China,asacivilization,retainedmanytraditionalpatterns,butitalsochangeddramaticallyinthebalancebetweenregions,incommercialandurbandevelopment,andintechnology.Outsideinfluences, suchasBuddhism, wereincorporatedinto existingpatterns.

CHAPTER13

TheSpreadofChineseCivilization:Japan,Korea,andVietnam

TracethefailureoftheTaikareformsanditspolitical result.

1. Comparethe Japanese governmentbetweenthe GumpeiWarsandtheOninWar.

2. Describe the nature ofJapanese society andeconomyduring the periodofthe daimyos.

3. Tracethe impositionofSinificationonKoreaanditsaffectonthe socialdevelopmentofthecountry.

4.Comparetheculturaldifferencesbetween Vietnameseand Chinese.

5. DescribetheVietnamesegovernmentafterthe expulsion oftheChinese.

6. Comparethecommonelements ofChineseculture ofallthreeofthe satellitecivilizations. At least 5-8 sentences.

7. Compareeast Asian civilization with otherpostclassical civilizations.

CHAPTER 13 SUMMARY

ThepeopleonChina’sbordersnaturallyemulatedtheir greatneighbor.JapanborrowedheavilyfromChina duringthe5th and6th centurieswhen it beganforming itsowncivilization. Tothenorthand west ofChina,nomadicpeopleandTibetwerealso influenced.VietnamandKoreawerepartoftheChinesespherebythelast centuriesB.C.E.TheagrariansocietiesofJapan,Korea,andVietnamblendedChineseinfluenceswiththeirindigenousculturestoproducedistinctivepatternsofcivilizeddevelopment.Inall threeregions, BuddhismwasakeyforceintransmittingChinesecivilization.

Japan:TheImperial Age.Duringthe Taika,Nara,and Heianperiods,fromthe7thtothe 9thcenturies, JapaneseborrowingfromChinapeaked,althoughShintoviewsonthenaturalandsupernaturalworldremainedcentral.TheTaikareformsof646aimedatrevampingtheadministrationalongChineselines.IntellectualsandaristocratsabsorbedChineseinfluences.ThecommonpeoplelookedtoBuddhistmonksforspiritualandsecular assistanceandmeshedBuddhistbeliefswithtraditionalreligion.TheTaikareformsfailed.ThearistocracyreturnedtoJapanesetraditions;thepeasantryreworkedBuddhismintoaJapanesecreed.Theemperor lostpower toaristocratsandprovinciallords.

Crisisat Nara andtheShifttoHeian(Kyoto).The Taikaefforttoremakethe Japanese rulerintoaChinese-styleabsolutistmonarchwasfrustratedbyresistancefromaristocraticfamiliesand Buddhistmonks.Duringthenext century, theBuddhistsgrew so powerfulatcourt thatonemonkattemptedtomarryEmpressKokenandclaimthe throne.TheemperorfledandestablishedanewcapitalatHeian(Kyoto).HeabandonedtheTaikareformsandrestoredthepowerofaristocraticfamilies.DespitefollowingChinesepatterns,theJapanesedeterminedaristocraticrankbybirth, thusblockingsocialmobility.Thearistocratsdominatedthecentralgovernmentandrestoredtheir positionaslandholders.Theemperorgaveupplansforcreatingapeasantconscriptarmyand orderedlocalleadersto formrural militias.

Ultracivilized: CourtLife intheHeianera.Although theimperialcourthad lostpower,courtcultureflourishedatHeian.Aristocraticmenandwomenlivedaccordingtostrict behavioralcodes. Theylived inacomplex ofpalacesand gardens;the basisoflifewasthepursuitofaestheticenjoymentandtheavoidanceofcommon, distastefulelementsoflife.Poetrywasavaluedartform,andtheJapanesesimplifiedthescripttakenfromtheChinesetofacilitateexpression.Anoutpouringofdistinctively Japanesepoeticand literaryworksfollowed.Atthecourt, womenwereexpectedtobeasculturedasmen; theywereinvolvedinpalaceintriguesandpower struggles.LadyMurasaki’sTheTaleofGenji, thefirstnovelinanylanguage,vividlydepictscourtlylife.

TheDeclineofImperialPower.Thepleasure-lovingemperorlost controlofpolicytoaristocraticcourtfamilies.Bythe9thcentury,theFujiwaradominatedtheadministrationandmarriedintotheimperialfamily.Aristocraticfamiliesusedtheirwealthandinfluencetobuylargeestates.TogetherwithBuddhistmonasteries, alsoestateowners, theywhittleddownimperialauthority.Largenumbersof peasantsandartisansfellundertheircontrol.CooperationbetweenaristocratsandBuddhistswashelpedbysecrettextsandceremoniesofesotericBuddhism,techniquestogainsalvationthroughprayerandmeditation.Bothgroupsfailedtoreckonwith therising poweroflocal lords.

TheRiseoftheProvincialWarriorElite.Theprovincialaristocracyhadalsogainedestates.Somecarvedoutregionalstatesruledfromsmallfortresseshousing thelordand hisretainers. Thewarriorleaders(bushi)governedandtaxedforthemselves,notthe court.The bushi createdtheir ownmountedandarmedforces(samurai).Imperialcontrolkeptdeclining;bythe11thand12thcenturies,violencewasso prevalentthat monasteries, thecourt,andhighofficialsallhiredsamurai for protection.Thedisorderresulted inthe emergenceofawarriorclass.The bushi andsamurai,supportedbypeasantdependents, devotedtheirlivestomartialactivity.Theircombatbecameman-to-manduelsbetweenchampions.Thewarriorsdevelopedacodethatstressedfamilyhonoranddeathratherthandefeat.Disgraced warriorscommittedritualsuicide (seppukuor hari-kari).Theriseofthesamuraiblockedthe development of afreepeasantry;theybecameserfsbound totheland andweretreated asthelord’sproperty.Rigid classbarriersseparatedthemfromthewarriorelite.Tocountertheirdegradation, thepeasantry turnedtothe PureLandsSalvationistBuddhism.Artisanslivedatthecourtandwith someofthe bushi;theyalso,despitetheirskills,possessedlittlesocialstatus.

TheEraofWarrior Dominance.Bythe11th and 12thcenturies,provincialfamiliesdominatedthedecliningimperialcourt.Themostpowerfulfamilies,theTairaandMinamoto,fought fordominance during the1180sintheGumpei wars.The peasantry suffered seriouslosses.TheMinamotowerevictoriousin1185and establishedamilitary government(bakufu)centeredatKamakura.Theemperorandcourtwerepreserved, butallpowerrestedwiththeMinamotoandtheirsamurai.Japanesefeudalismwasunder way.

TheDecliningInfluence ofChina.Chinese influencewanedalongwith imperial power.Principlesof centralizedgovernmentandascholar-gentrybureaucracyhadlittleplaceina systemwherelocalmilitaryleaderspredominated.ChineseBuddhismwasalsotransformedintoadistinctlyJapanesereligion.ThepoliticaluncertaintyaccompanyingthedeclineoftheTangmadetheChinesemodelevenlessrelevant.By 838,the Japanesecourt discontinueditsembassiestotheTang.

The BreakdownofBakufuDominance andtheAge ofthe Warlords.TheleaderoftheMinamoto, Yoritomo,becauseoffearsofbeingoverthrownbyfamilymembers,weakenedhisregimeby assassinating or exilingsuspected relatives. Hisdeath wasfollowedbyastruggleamongbushi lordsforregional power.TheHojofamily soon dominatedtheKamakura regime.TheMinamoto and theemperorat Kyotoremainedaspowerlessformalrulers.Inthe14thcentury,aMinamotoleader,AshikagaTakuaji,overthrewtheKamakuraregimeandestablishedtheAshikaga shogunate.Whenthe emperorrefusedtorecognizethenew regime,hewasdrivenfromKyoto;withthesupportofwarlords,heand hisheirsfought against theAshikaga and theirpuppetemperors.TheAshikagafinallywonthestruggle, butthecontesthadunderminedimperialandshogunateauthority.Japanwasdividedintoregionalterritoriesgovernedbycompetingwarlords.From1467to1477, acivilwar between Ashikaga factionscontributedto

thecollapse ofcentralauthority.Japan became dividedinto 300smallstatesruled bywarlords(daimyo).

In Depth:ComparingFeudalisms.Fullydevelopedfeudal systemsdevelopedduringthepostclassical age in Japan and western Europe.They didso when itwasnot possible tosustainmorecentralizedpoliticalforms.Manyothersocietieshadsimilarproblems,buttheydid notdevelopfeudalism.TheJapaneseandwesternEuropeanfeudalsystemsweresetinpoliticalvaluesthat joinedtogethermost ofthesystem’sparticipants.Theyincludedtheconceptofmutualtiesandobligationsandembracedelitemilitaristicvalues.Thereweredifferencesbetweenthetwoapproachestofeudalism.WesternEuropestressedcontractualideas, whiletheJapanesereliedongroupand individualbonds.Thesharedfeudal past mayhave assisted theirsuccessfulindustrialdevelopmentandshapedtheircapacityforrunningcapitalisteconomies.Itmayalsohavecontributedtotheirtendenciesforimperialistexpansion, frequentresorttowar,andtheriseofmilitaristregimes.

Toward Barbarism? MilitaryDivision and Social Change.Thechivalrousqualitiesofthebushieradeterioratedduringthe15thand16thcenturies.Warfarebecamemorescientific,whilethepresenceoflargenumbersofarmed peasantsin daimyoarmiesaddedtothemiseryofthecommonpeople.Despitethesufferingofthewarlordperiod,therewaseconomicandculturalgrowth.Daimyosattemptedtoadministertheir domainsthroughregulartaxcollectionandsupportforpublic works.Incentiveswereofferedto settle unoccupied areas,andnewcrops,tools,andtechniquescontributedtolocalwell-being.Daimyoscompetedtoattractmerchantstotheircastletowns.Anewandwealthycommercialclassemerged,andguildswereformedbyartisansandmerchants.Aminorityofwomenfoundopportunitiesincommerceandhandicraftindustries, butthewomenofthewarriorclassloststatusasprimogenitureblockedthemfromreceivinginheritances.Womenbecameappendagesofwarrior fathersandhusbands.Aspart ofthisgeneral trend,women lostritualrolesinreligion andwerereplacedin theatersbymen.

ArtisticSolaceforaTroubledAge.ZenBuddhism had akey roleinmaintainingtheartsamongtheelite.ZenmonasterieswerekeylocationsforrenewedcontactswithChina.Notableachievementsweremadeinpainting,architecture,gardens,andtheteaceremony.

Korea:Between ChinaandJapan.Korea,because ofitsproximity toChina,wasmoreprofoundlyinfluencedover alongerperiodthanany otherstate.Butdespite itspowerfulneighbor,Koreadevelopeditsownseparateculturalandpoliticalidentity.Koreansdescendedfromhunting-and-gatheringpeoplesofSiberiaandManchuria.Bythe4thcenturyB.C.E.,theywereacquiringsedentaryfarmingandmetalworkingtechniquesfromChina.In109B.C.E., theearliestKoreankingdom,Choson,wasconqueredbytheHan,andparts ofthepeninsula werecolonizedby Chinese. KoreanresistancetotheChinese ledtothefoundingintheNorth ofanindependentstatebytheKoguryopeople;itsoon battled thesouthernstatesofSillaandPaekche.Afterthefallof theHan,anextensiveadoptionofChineseculture—Sinification—occurred.

Buddhism wasa keyelement inthetransfer.Chinese writingwasadopted,butthe KoguryorulerfailedtoformaChinese-stylestate.

TangAlliancesandtheConquest ofKorea.ContinuingpoliticaldisunityinKoreaallowedtheTang,through alliancewithSilla,todefeatPaekche andKoguryo.Silla becamea vassal statein668;theChinese receivedtributeandleftSillatogovern Korea.TheKoreansmaintainedindependenceuntiltheearly20thcentury.

Sinification: TheTributary Link.Underthe Silla andKoryo(918-1392)dynasties,ChineseinfluencespeakedandKoreancultureachieveditsfirst full flowering.TheSillacopiedTangways, andthroughfrequentmissions, broughtChineselearning, art, andmanufactureditemstoKorea.TheChinesewerecontent withreceivingtributeandallowed Koreanstoruntheirownaffairs.

TheSinification ofKoreanEliteCulture.TheSillaconstructed theircapital,Kumsong,onthemodelofTang cities.Thereweremarkets,parks,lakes,and aseparatedistrictfortheimperialfamily.Thearistocracybuiltresidencesaroundtheimperialpalace.SomeofthemstudiedinChineseschoolsand satfor Confucianexamsintroduced bythe rulers.Most governmentpositions, however, weredeterminedbybirthandfamilyconnections.TheelitefavoredBuddhism, inChineseforms,overConfucianism.KoreanculturalcreativitywentintothedecorationofthemanyBuddhist monasteriesandtemples.Koreansrefinedtechniquesofporcelainmanufacture,firstlearnedfromtheChinese,toproducemasterworks.

CivilizationfortheFew.ApartfromBuddhist sectsthatappealedtothecommonpeople,Chineseinfluencesweremonopolizedbyatinyelite,thearistocraticfamilieswhodominatedKorea’spolitical,economic, andsociallife.TradewithChinaandJapanwasintendedtoservetheirdesires.Aristocratscontrolledmanufacturingandcommerce,thushamperingthedevelopmentofartisanandtraderclasses. All groupsbeneaththearistocracyinthesocialscaleservedthem.Theyincludedgovernmentofficials,commoners(mainlypeasants), andthelowborn,whoworked asvirtual slavesina widerangeofoccupations.

KoryoCollapse,DynasticRenewal. The burdensimposed bythearistocracy uponcommonersandthe low born caused periodicrevolts.Most werelocal affairsand easilysuppressed,but,alongwitharistocraticquarrelsandforeigninvasions,theyhelpedweakentheSillaandKoryoregimes.Morethana centuryofconflictfollowedthe Mongol invasion of1231 untiltheYidynastywasestablished in1392.TheYirestoredaristocraticdominanceandtributary linkstoChina.The dynasty lasted until1910.

Between ChinaandSoutheast Asia:The Making ofVietnam.TheChinese movesouthwardbroughtthemtothefertile,rice-growingregionoftheRedRivervalley.ButtheindigenousVietsdid not sufferthesame fateasother, tothe Chinese,“Southern barbarians.”Theirhomelandwasfar fromthemain Chinesecenters,andtheVietshadalreadyformedtheirowndistinctculture.TheywerepreparedtoreceivethebenefitsofChinese civilizationbutnotto losetheir identity.TheQinraidedVietnaminthe220sB.C.E.Thecontactstimulatedanalreadyexistingcommerce.TheVietrulersduringthiseraconqueredtheRedRiverfeudal lords.Theyincorporatedtheterritoryintotheirkingdom,andVietsintermarriedwiththeMon-Khmer andTai-speakinginhabitantstoforma distinct ethnicgroup.TheVietswerepartofsoutheastAsian culture.Theirspokenlanguage wasnotrelatedtoChinese.Theyhadstrongvillageautonomyandfavoredthenuclear family.VietnamesewomenhadmorefreedomandinfluencethanChinesewomendid.GeneralcustomsandculturalformswereverydifferentfromthoseofChina.

Conquest andSinification.TheexpandingHanEmpirefirstsecured tributefromVietnam;later, after 111B.C.E.,theHanconqueredandgoverneddirectly.Chineseadministratorspresidedover theintroduction of Chineseculture.VietsattendedChineseschools, wheretheylearnedChinesescriptandstudiedtheConfucianclassics.Theytookexamsforadministrativeposts.TheincorporationofChinesetechniquesmadeVietnameseagriculturethemost

productiveinSoutheastAsiaandledtohigherpopulation density.Theuse ofChinese politicalandmilitaryorganizationgavetheVietsadecisiveadvantageovertheIndianizedpeoplestothewest and south.

RootsofResistance.Chinese expectationsforabsorption ofthe Vietswerefrustrated bysporadicaristocraticrevoltsandthefailureofChineseculturetowinthepeasantry.Vietnamesewomenparticipated intherevoltsagainst theChinese. Therising ledbytheTrungsistersin39

C.E.demonstratesthedifferingpositionofViet and Chinesewomen.Theformerwerehostiletothemale-dominatedConfuciancodesandfamilysystem.

WinningIndependenceand Continuing ChineseInfluences.ThecontinuingrevolutionswereaidedbyVietnam’sgreatdistancefromChina.When politicalweaknessoccurredinChina,theViettookadvantageofthe limitedChinese presence.By 939,Vietnamwasindependent;itremained so untilthe19th century.Asuccession ofdynasties,beginning withtheLe(980-1009),ruledVietnamthroughabureaucracy modeledontheChinese system, butthelocal scholar-gentrynevergainedthepowerthat classheld inChina.LocalViet officialsidentifiedwithvillagerulersandthepeasantryinsteadof therulingdynasty.Buddhistmonksalsohadstrongerlinkswithcommonpeople,especiallywomen,thandidtheConfucianbureaucrats.

TheVietnameseDrivetotheSouth.TheChinese legacyhelpedtheVietsintheirstruggleswithlocalrivals.TheirmainadversariesweretheIndianizedKhmerandChamspeoplesofthesouthern lowlands. Aseriesofsuccessful warswiththem fromthe11thtothe 18th centuriesextendedVietterritoryintotheMekongdeltaregion.

ExpansionandDivision.Thedynastiescentered atthenortherncapitalcityofHanoiwereunabletocontroldistantfrontierareas.DifferencesinculturedevelopedastheinvadersintermarriedwiththeChamsandKhmers.Regionalmilitarycommanderssoughtindependence.Bythe end ofthe 16thcentury,arivaldynasty,theNguyen,witha capitalatHue,challengedthenorthernrulingTrinhfamily.The dynastiesfoughtforcontrolofVietnamfor thenexttwocenturies.

Global Connections:Inthe OrbitofChina:TheEastAsianCorner oftheGlobalSystem.DuringthefirstmillenniumC.E., ChinesecivilizationinfluencedtheformationofthreedistinctsatellitecivilizationsinJapan, Korea,andVietnam.UnlikeChina’snomadicneighbors, eachcontainedareassuitableforsedentaryagriculture—wetricecultivation—andthedevelopmentofcivilization.CommonelementsofChineseculture—writing,bureaucraticorganization,religion,art—passedtoeachnewcivilization.Alltheimports,exceptBuddhism,weremonopolizedbycourtsandelites.The civilizationsdifferedbecauseof variationsintheprocessof mixingChineseandindigenouspatterns.China’snearnesstoKoreaforcedsymbolicpolitical submissionandlong-termculturaldependence.InVietnam, Chineseconquestandcontrolstretchedoverathousandyears.AlthoughtheVietseventuallyobtainedindependence,ChineseculturehelpedformtheircivilizationandallowedtheVietstocounterbalanceIndianinfluencesamongtheir southeastAsianrivals.TheJapaneseescapeddirectChineserule;Chineseculturewasfirstcultivatedbytheelite of theimperialcourt, butrivalprovincial,militaristicclansopposedChineseinfluences.JapanesepoliticalpatternsbecameverydifferentfromthecentralizedsystemofChina.Thepreoccupationwith interactionwithintheeast Asianspherelefttheregion’sinhabitantswithlimitedawareness oflargerworldcurrentswhencomparedwithglobalawarenessinothermajorcivilizations.

CHAPTER14

1. Describethenatureofthemilitary organizationestablishedbyChinggisKhan.

2.Describethenature ofthe administrationoftheMongol empire underChinggisKhan.

3.Tracethe effectof theMongolconquestofRussia andIslamicheartlands.

4.TracetheeffectoftheMongolconquestonChinese society and political structure.

5.Describethe positiveaspectsofthe Mongolconquests.

6.Compare the conquests ofTimur-iLang with those oftheMongols.

TheLastGreatNomadicChanges:FromChinggisKhantoTimur

CHAPTERSUMMARY

The nomadsofcentralAsia returned tocenterstage in worldhistory duringthe 13th century.TheMongolsendedorinterruptedthegreatpostclassicalempireswhileextendingtheworldnetwork.LedbyChinggisKhanandhissuccessors,they brought central Asia,China,Persia,Tibet,Iraq,Asia Minor,andsouthernRussiaunder their control anddominated mostofAsiaforoneandahalfcenturies.TheMongolswerethemostformidablenomadicchallengetothesedentarycivilizationssincethefirstcenturyC.E.The Mongolsareoftenportrayedasbarbariansanddestructiveconquerors,butgenerally intheirvast possessionspeoplelivedinpeace,enjoyedreligioustolerance,andhadaunifiedlawcode.Peacefulcontactsoverlongdistancesopened.Mongolterritorywasabridgebetween thecivilizationsof theEast asproductsandideasmovedamongcivilizedandnomadicpeoples.

TheMongolEmpire ofChinggisKhan.The Mongolswerenomadic herdersofgoatsand sheep who lived offtheproductsoftheiranimals.Boysand girlslearned toride assoon astheycouldwalk.Thebasicunitofsocial organization,thetribe,wasdividedintokin-relatedclans.Greatconfederationswereorganizedfordefensiveandoffensiveoperations.Menhelddominantleadershippositions;womenheldconsiderableinfluencewithinthefamily.Leaderswere electedbyfreemen.Theygainedtheirpositionsthrough displaysofcourageanddiplomaticskillsandmaintainedpoweraslongastheyweresuccessful.

TheMakingofaGreatWarrior:TheEarlyCareer ofChinggisKhan.Mongolian peoplesestablishedkingdomsinnorthChinainthe 4th and10thcenturiesC.E.Inthe12th century,KabulKhandefeatedaQinarmy,butMongolorganization declinedafterhisdeath.Hisgrandson,ChinggisKhan,originallynamedTemujin,wasamemberofoneoftheclansdisputingMongolleadershipattheendofthe 12thcentury.TemujingainedstrengthamongtheMongolsthroughallianceswithmorepowerfulgroups.Afterdefeatinghisrivals,hewas electedsupremeruler(khagan)ofall Mongoltribesin1206.

BuildingtheMongolWarMachine.Mongolmalesweretrainedfromyouthtoride,hunt,andfight.Theirpowerful shortbows,firedfromhorseback,weredevastating weapons.ThespeedandmobilityofMongol armiesmadethemtheworld’sbest.Thearmies,dividedintofightingunitsof 10,000 (tumens),includedbothheavyandlightcavalry.Harshdiscipline,enforcedthroughaformalcode, brought punishmentsandrewardsforconduct.Anotherunit,employingspies, securedaccurateinformationforcampaigns.Newweapons, includinggunpowderandcannons,wereused.

Conquest: TheMongolEmpireunderChinggisKhan.ChinggisKhan set forthtoconquertheknown world.In1207,the Mongols defeated the northwestern China TangutkingdomofXiXia.TheynextattackedtheQinEmpire established by the Jurchens.Inthese firstcampaigns,theMongolsdevelopednewtacticsfor capturingfortified urbancenters.Citiesthatresisted

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wereutterlydestroyed;theirinhabitantswerekilledormadeslaves.Citiesthatsubmittedavoidedthisfate;tributeensuredsafety.

FirstAssaultontheIslamic World.AfterChina,the Mongolsmovedwestward.Victoryover KhwarazmbroughtmanyTurkichorsemenintoChinggisKhan’sarmy.TheMongolleader spenttherest ofhislifefighting inChina.TheXi Xia kingdomand theQin empireweredestroyed.AtthedeathofChinggisKhan in1227,the Mongolsruledanempirestretchingfrom Persiato theNorthChinaSea.

Lifeunder the MongolImperium.The Mongolswerebothfearsome warriorsand astute,tolerantrulers.ChinggisKhan, thoughilliterate,wasopentonewideasandwantedtocreateapeacefulempire.Heestablishedanewcapital inthe steppesatKarakorum andhiredtalentedindividualsfromallconqueredregions.ChinggisfollowedshamanisticMongolbeliefsbuttoleratedallreligions.Heused theknowledge ofMuslim andChinese bureaucratstobuildanadministrativestructure fortheempire.Ascriptwasdevised forthe Mongolianlanguage,andalegalcodehelped endoldquarrels.The Mongol conquestsbrought peacetomuch ofAsia.Inurbancenters, artisansandscholarsfreelyworked.Commerceflourishedalongsecuretraderoutes.

The DeathofChinggis Khanandthe DivisionoftheEmpire.When Chinggisdiedin1227,the vastterritoriesofthe Mongols weredivided amongthree sonsand agrandson.Histhirdson,Ogedei,atalented diplomat,waschosen asgrand khan.He presidedoverfurtherMongolconquestsfornearlyadecade.

TheMongolDrivetotheWest.Thearmiesofthe Golden Horde movedwestward.By the13thcentury,KievwasindeclineandRussiawasdividedintomanypettykingdoms.Theywereunabletounitebeforethe Mongols(calledTatarsor Tartarsby Russians).Batu,ChinggisKhan’sgrandson,invadedin1236anddefeatedRussian armiesonebyone.Resisting citieswererazed.In1240,Kievwastaken andravaged.Novgorodwassparedwhenits ruler,AlexanderNevskii,peacefullysubmitted,atleasttemporarily.

Russiain Bondage.TheRussians became vassalsofthekhan ofthe GoldenHorde,adominationlastingtwoandahalfcenturies.Russian princespaidtribute.Peasantshadtomeetdemandsfromboththeirownprincesandthe Mongols. Many sought protectionbybecomingserfs.Thedecisioninauguratedamajorchangeinruralsocial structure:serfdomendureduntilthemiddleofthe19thcentury.Somecities,especiallyMoscow,benefitedfromtheincreasedcommercial possibilitiesbrought byMongolrule.It grewattheexpense ofnearbytownsandprofitedastribute collectorforthekhans.When thepowerofthe Golden Horde declined,MoscowledRussianresistancetothe Mongols.The GoldenHordewasdefeatedatKulikovain1380. LaterattacksbyTimurbrokethe Mongolhold on Russia. Mongolsremainedactiveintheregion through most ofthe15th century,butfromtheendofthe14thcentury,Moscow wasthecenterofpoliticalpowerinRussia.Althoughmuchoftheireffectwasnegative,theMongoloccupationwasveryimportantin Russianhistory.Theirexampleinfluencedmilitaryandpoliticalorganization.Mostsignificantly,theMongolsisolatedRussiafromdevelopmentsinwesternEuropeancivilizationliketheRenaissanceandtheReformation.

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MongolIncursionsandthe RetreatfromEurope. Christianwestern Europeinitiallyhadbeenpleased byMongol successesagainst Islam.Many intheWestthoughttheMongol khanwasPresterJohn. Whenthe Mongolsmoved westward intoHungary,westernEuropeanshadrealreasonforconcern.However,Europeescaped moreseriousinvasionswhen the deathofOgedeiandtheresultingsuccession struggleforcedBatutowithdraw.Satisfied withtheirrichconquestsinAsia andtheMiddleEast,the MongolsdidnotreturntoEurope.

TheMongolAssaultontheIslamic Heartland.Hulegu,agrandson ofChinggisKhan, movedwestward against MesopotamiaandnorthAfrica.Baghdadwasdestroyedin 1258. WiththefalloftheAbbasiddynasty,Islamhadlostitscentralauthority;consequently, muchofitscivilizationwasdevastated.Amajor Mongolvictory overtheSeljukTurksin1243openedAsiaMinorto conquest by theOttomanTurks.The Mongol advancehalted in 1260whenthe

MamluksofEgyptdefeatedtheMongols.Hulegu,facedwithother threatstohisrule,includingtheconversionofthekhanoftheGoldenHordetoIslam,didnotresumethecampaign.

TheMongolInterlude inChinese History.TheMongol advanceintoChinaresumed afterOgedei’selection.KubilaiKhan,another grandson ofChinggisKhan,duringthemiddleofthe13thcentury ledthe Mongolsagainst the Song.In1271,Kubilai’sdynasty becametheYuan.Ashisconquestscontinued,KubilaiattemptedtopreservethedistinctionbetweenMongolsandChinese.ChinesewereforbiddenfromlearningtheMongolscriptandintermarriagewasprohibited.Mongolreligiousceremoniesandcustomswereretained.Kubilairefusedtoreestablishexamsfor thecivilservice.DespitethemeasuresprotectingMongolculture, Kubilaiwasfascinatedby Chinesecivilization.He adoptedmuchfromtheir cultureintohiscourt;thecapital at Tatu(Beijing)wasin Chinesestyle. Anew socialstructureemergedinChina.TheMongolswereatthetop;theirnomadicandIslamicalliesweredirectlybelowthem.Bothgroupsdominatedthehighestlevelsof theadministration.BeneaththemcamefirsttheNorthChinese, andthenethnicChineseandpeoplesofthe South.

GenderRolesandtheConvergenceofMongolandChineseCulture.Mongol womenremainedalooffromConfucianChineseculture.Theyrefusedtoadoptfootbindingandretainedrightstopropertyandcontrolinthehousehold,aswellasfreedomofmovement.Some Mongol women huntedand wenttowar.Chabi,wifeofKubilai,wasanespeciallyinfluentialwoman.TheMongolinterludeinChinawastoobrief, andMongol numberstoosmall,tochangeConfucianpatterns.Thefreedomof womendeclinedunderKubilai’ssuccessors.

MongolToleranceandForeignCultural Influence.The opennessof Mongolrulerstooutsideideas, andtheirpatronage,drew scholars,artists, artisans,andofficeseekersfrommanyregions.Muslim landsprovidedsomeofthemostfavoredarrivals;theywereincludedinthesocialorderjust belowtheMongols.They broughtmuchnewknowledgeintotheChineseworld.Kubilaiwasinterested inallreligions; Buddhists,NestorianandLatinChristians,Daoists,and Muslimswereall present at court.Hewelcomedforeignvisitors.ThemostfamouswastheVenetianMarcoPolo.

In Depth:TheEclipseoftheNomadicWar Machine.Theincursionsofsmallnumbersofmilitarilyskillednomadsintothecivilizedcoreshavehadamajoreffectonworldhistory.

Nomadsdestroyedentirecivilizations,stimulatedgreatpopulationmovements,causedsocial

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upheavals,andfacilitatedculturalandeconomicexchanges.TheMongolandTimuridinvasionswerethehigh pointofnomadic success.During the14thcentury,theeffectoftheBlackDeathonnomadsgavesedentarypeoplesnumericalsuperiority.Sedentarycivilizationsbecamebetter abletocentralizepoliticalpowerandtomobilizeresourcesfordevelopingsuperiormilitaryorganization.WiththeIndustrialRevolution,sedentarydominancebecamepermanent.

SocialPoliciesand Scholar-GentryResistance.TheethnicChinese, thevastmajorityofKubilai’ssubjects, wereneverreconciledtoMongolrule.Thescholar-gentryregarded MongolsasuncouthbarbarianswithpoliciesendangeringChinesetraditions.Therefusaltoreinstatetheexaminationsystemwasespeciallyresented.TheMongolsalsobolsteredthepositionofartisansand merchantswho previouslyhad not receivedhighstatus. BothprosperedastheMongolsimprovedtransportationandexpanded thesupplyofpaper money.The Mongolsdevelopedasubstantialnavythathelpedconquestandincreasedcommerce.Urban lifeflourished.Mongolpatronagestimulatedpopularentertainment,especiallymusicaldrama,andawardedhigherstatustoformerlydespised actorsand actresses.Kubilai’spoliciesinitiallyfavoredthepeasantry.Theirlandwasprotected from Mongolcavalrymenturning itintopasture,and faminereliefmeasureswereintroduced.Taxandlaborburdenswerereduced.Arevolutionarychangewasformulated—butnotenacted—forestablishingelementaryeducationatthevillagelevel.

The Fallof the House ofYuan.By thetimeofKubilai’s death,theYuandynastywasweakening.SongloyalistsintheSouthrevolted.Mongol expeditionsof 1274and1280againstJapanfailed.OtherMongolforcesweredefeatedin Vietnamand Java.Kubilai’ssuccessorslackedtalent,andtheYuanadministrationbecamecorrupt.Thesufferingpeasantrywascalledupon by the scholar-gentrytodriveout the“barbarians.”By the 1350s, the dynasty wastooweakto controlall ofChina.Faminesstimulated local risings.Secret societiesdedicatedtooverthrowingthedynasty formed.Rivalrebelsfought eachother.Many MongolsreturnedtocentralAsia.Finally,apeasantleader,JuYuanzhang,triumphedandfoundedthe Mingdynasty.

Aftershock:The BriefRideofTimur.JustwhenthepeoplesofEurasia began torecover fromtheeffectsofMongolexpansion,anewleader,theTurkTimur-iLang,brought newexpansion.Timur,ahighlyculturedindividualfromanoble,land-owningclan,movedfromhisbaseatSamarkandtoconquestsinPersia,theFertileCrescent, India,andsouthernRussia.

Timurisrememberedforthebarbaricdestructionofconqueredlands—hiscampaignsoutdideventheMongolsintheirferocity.Hisruledidnot increasecommercialexpansion,cross-culturalexchanges, orinternalpeace.After hisdeath in1405,Timur’sempirefellapart,andthelastgreatchallengeofthesteppenomadstoEurasiancivilizationsended.

GlobalConnections:TheMongolLinkages.ThelegacyoftheMongol periodwasbothcomplexanddurable.TheMongolsbroughtthe MuslimandEuropeanworldsnew militaryknowledge, especiallytheuseof gunpowder.TradeandculturalcontactbetweendifferentcivilizationsthroughoutEurasiabecamemucheasier.ThetradingempiresestablishedintheirdominionsbyVenetiansandGenoeseprovidedexperienceusefulforlaterEuropeanexpansion.Anunintendedconsequencewasthetransmitting ofthefleascarryingthebubonicplague—theBlackDeath—fromChinaandcentralAsiatotheMiddleEastandEurope.