Chapter 10 Land, Public and Private

Chapter 10—Land, Public and Private

CORE CASE STUDY: Who Owns a Tree? Julia Butterfly Hill versus Maxxum

I.  Human land use affects the environment in many ways

a.  The Tragedy of the Commons

·  Written by ecologist Garrett Hardin in 1968

·  The tendency of a shared, limited resource to become depleted because people act from self-interest for short-term gain

b.  Externalitites

·  A cost or benefit of a good or service that is not included in the purchase price of a good or service

·  Negative externalities in the environment often lead to serious damage for which no one is held legally or financially responsible

·  Ways to prevent tragedy of the commons: private landownership, regulations (by government or self)

c.  Maximum Sustainable Yield

·  Maximum amount that can be harvested without compromising the future availability of that resource

·  Permits an indefinite use without depleting the resource

II.  Public lands are classified according to their use

a.  International Categories of Public Lands

·  National parks are managed for scientific, educational, and recreational use, and sometimes for their beauty or unique landforms; NOT used for resource extraction; sometimes indigenous people are displaced

·  Managed resource protected areas allow for the sustained use of biological, mineral, and recreational resources

·  Habitat/species management areas are actively managed to maintain biological communities

·  Strict nature reserves and wilderness areas are established to protect species and ecosystems

·  Protected landscapes and seascapes combine the nondestructive use of natural resources with opportunities for tourism and recreation

·  National monuments are set aside to protect unique sites of special natural or cultural interest

b.  Public Lands in the United States

·  Publicly held land may be owned the federal, state or local government in the U.S.

·  42% of the nation is publicly held—the largest % of any country in the world

·  Feds own 25% which is located mainly in the west and Alaska

i.  Public Land Classifications

·  The resource conservation ethic states that people should maximize resource use based on the greatest good for everyone (and nature)

·  Multiple-use lands may be used for recreation, grazing, timber harvesting, and mineral extraction

·  Others are protected to maintain watersheds, preserve wildlife and fish populations or to maintain sites of scenic, scientific or historical value

ii. Land Use and Federal Agencies

·  Bureau of Land Management (BLM): grazing, mining, timber harvesting, and recreation

·  United States Forest Service (USFS): timber harvesting, grazing, recreation

·  National Park Service (NPS): recreation and conservation

·  Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS): wildlife conservation, hunting and recreation

III.  Land management practices vary according to land use

a.  Rangelands

·  Dry, open grasslands (semiarid)

·  Used primarily for cattle grazing, most common use of land in U.S.

·  Benefits of grazing: using land that is too dry to farm, uses less fossil fuels than raising in feedlots

·  Consequences of overgrazing: damage stream banks, pollute surface waters, denude vegetation which leads to erosion, poor soil permeability & loss of biodiversity

·  Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 converted commons into a permit-based system

o  Federal government spends 7x what it takes in in fees to maintain rangelands (ie. grazing is federally subsidized)

·  BLM regulations are not consistent, each manager decides what is “healthy” for their ecosystem

b.  Forests

·  Forests are dominated by trees and other woody vegetation

·  ~73% of commercial timber forests in the U.S. are privately owned

·  Commercial logging companies are allowed to use U.S. national forests for a percentage of their revenues

o  The federal government spends more money managing timber and building and maintaining roads than it receives in royalties

i.  Timber Harvest Practices

·  Clear-cutting involves removing all, or almost all, the trees within an area (trees are all same age in a stand)

o  Easiest harvesting method, most economical

o  Biodiversity is reduced (fast-growers are favored)

o  Increases erosion (especially on slopes) & loss of soil nutrients that end up in nearby streams (bad for aquatic ecosystems)

o  Allows more sunlight to reach surface water, raising temperatures (bad for aquatic ecosystems)

o  Fires & herbicides used to remove vegetation for replanting contaminate water (loss of biodiversity)

·  Selective cutting removes single trees or relatively small numbers of trees from among many in a forest (stand contains trees of different ages)

o  Produces optimum growth only among shade-tolerant species

o  Less serve negative environmental impacts

·  Environmental consequences of logging: roads fragment habitat, lead to diversity changes, compact soil leading to nutrient loss and reduction in water filtration

·  Ecologically sustainable forestry aims to maintain all species in as natural a state as possible

ii. Logging, Deforestation, and Reforestation

·  ~30% of all commercial timber in the world is produced in the U.S. & Canada

·  All logging disrupts habitat and usually has a negative effect on plant & animal species

·  Logging often replaces complex forest ecosystems with tree plantations

o  Monoculture of rapidly growing species

o  Never mature into ecologically diverse forests

o  Soil may become depleted of important nutrients

·  USFS regulations DO NOT specify biodiversity management

iii.  Fire Management

·  Fire is important for nutrient cycling and regeneration

·  For many years, the policy of USFS was to suppress all fires

o  This led to a large quantities of dead biomass accumulation on the forest floor (ie. lots of fuel)

o  Large fires were inevitable (like YNP in 1988)

o  A prescribed burn reduces dead biomass, reduces the risk of an uncontrollable natural fire and provides new, nutrient-rich habitat

o  Natural fires are now allowed to burn as long as human life & property are not threatened

c.  National Parks

·  Yellowstone National Park was the first national park, established in 1872

i.  The Goals of National Park Management

o  Management is based on multi-use principle

o  Set aside specifically to protect ecosystems

ii. National Parks and Human Activities

o  Air & water pollution from outside parks can reduce their biodiversity, recreational value, and economic opportunities

o  Development adjacent to the park boundaries are problematic

o  Islands of biodiversity, invasive species are a problem

o  Conundrum of how to balance popularity with conservation (ATVs)

d.  Wildlife Refuges and Wilderness Areas

·  National wildlife refuges are the only federal public lands managed primarily for protecting wildlife

·  National wilderness areas are set aside to preserve large tracts of intact ecosystems

o  Created from other public lands (national forests, rangelands, etc.)

o  Allow only limited human use (no motorized vehicles) and are roadless

o  Mining prior to designation may continue but no new mining is allowed, road building and logging are completely banned

o  Alaska is 60% classified wilderness

e.  Federal Regulation of Land Use

·  The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 mandates an environmental assessment of all projects involving federal money or federal permits

·  An environmental impact statement must be filed by the project’s developers

o  Outlines the scope and purpose of the project

o  Describes the environmental context

o  Suggests alternative approaches to the project

o  Analyzes the environmental impact of each alternative

·  Permits or funds may be withheld until the developer submits an environmental mitigation plan stating how it will address environmental impacts

·  Protection of the Endangered Species Act kicks in if listed species are uncovered during preparation of the EIS

·  Public is allowed to view and give input on the EIS

o  Decision makers are required to respond

o  Developers are NOT obligated to act in accordance with public concerns

IV.  Residential land use is expanding

·  The greatest percentage of population growth in the U.S. has occurred in suburban and exurban areas

o  Suburban areas surround metropolitan centers & have low population densities compared with urban areas

o  Exurban areas are unconnected to any central city or densely populated area

·  Rural population has been declining since 1900

a.  Urban Sprawl

·  The creation of urbanized areas that spread into rural areas and remove clear boundaries between the two

·  Environmental impacts:

o  Suburban residents drive more than 2x as much as urban

o  Suburban communities use more than 2x as much land per person as urban

o  Replace farmland at edges of cities, increase distance to consumers

b.  Causes and Effects of Sprawl

i.  Automobiles and Highway Construction

·  Allow people to move away from city center but still participate in city life

ii. Living Costs

·  Land and housing are cheaper

·  Lower taxes due to fewer services provided

·  Little, if any, low-income housing available

·  Commuting costs are higher than in the city, may be unattainable for low-income individuals

iii.  Urban Blight

·  Shrinking urban population = less taxes and revenue for city

·  Cities may reduce services and/or raise taxes

·  Crime rate increase, infrastructure deteriorates

·  Jobs and services follow the population out of the city

·  Positive feedback loop creates urban blight

o  The degradation of the built and social environments of the city that often accompanies and accelerates migration to the suburbs

iv.  Government Policies

·  The Highway Trust Fund pays for the construction and maintenance of roads and highways

o  Begun by the Highway Revenue Act of 1956

o  Funded by federal gasoline tax

·  Positive feedback loop creates induced demand

o  An increase in the supply of a good causes a demand to grow

·  Zoning is a planning tool, used by governments, developed in the 1920s to separate industry and business from residential neighborhoods and create quieter, safer communities

·  Multi-use zoning allows retail and high-density residential development to coexist in the same area

·  The Federal Housing Act (FHA) created during the Great Depression allowed to people to buy houses in suburbs with federally subsidized loans with low interest rates

·  The GI Bill extended to veterans after WWII created a suburban housing boom through generous credit terms

c.  Smart Growth

·  Focuses on strategies that encourage the development of sustainable, healthy communities

·  Ten basic principles of smart growth:

1.  Mixed land uses: encourages walking & bicycling

2.  Create a range of housing opportunities and choices: counters the concentration of poverty in failing urban neighborhoods

3.  Create walkable neighborhoods: mix land use, reduce traffic speed, build businesses right up to sidewalk, put parking lots behind buildings

4.  Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions (stakeholders are people with an interest in a particular place or issue)

5.  Take advantage of compact building design: multistory buildings, parking garages; stores, offices & apartments could occupy same building

6.  Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place (sense of place is the feeling that an area has a distinct and meaningful character)

7.  Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental area: fresher food, environmental services, stress-reducing

8.  Provide a variety of transportation choices: Transit-oriented development attempts to focus dense residential and retail development around stops for public transportation, car-sharing services reduce the need for private car ownership

9.  Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities: infill is development that fills in vacant lots in existing communities, urban growth boundaries place restrictions on development outside of designated areas

10.  Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost-effective: standardized designs allows developers to move rapidly through the permitting process

·  Environmental benefits: reduced runoff and flooding downstream, reduced water and air pollution

WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY: The Dudley Street Neighborhood

·  Eminent domain allows a government to acquire property at a fair market value even if the owner does not wish to sell it

Chapter 10 | 6