Campaigns and Voting Behavior

Campaigns and Voting Behavior

Chapter Overview

Elections form the foundation of the American system of democracy. They are the means by which citizens select the leaders of the government who, presumably, enact policies on behalf of constituents. But Americans often have a weak understanding of how campaigns, elections, and voting in the United States actually function, despite their importance. In this chapter, we explore the process of seeking elected office in the United States. We begin by exploring the fundamental election procedures—the rules of the game—thatdefine how candidates are nominated and how winners are determined in American elections. We focus in particular on the fairness of our current system. Then we examine the key objectives of political campaigns and outline the benefits of incumbency and the role of money in the campaign process. Next, we consider the factors that influence the decisions of voters, focusing in particular on the role of party identification, candidate evaluation, and policy options on voting. We conclude by evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of the U.S. system of campaigns and elections. By the end of the chapter, students should have a good command of the formal structures and functions, as well as the behind-the-scenes politics, of campaigns and elections in the United States.

Lecture Suggestions

Evaluate the fairness of our current system of presidential primaries and caucuses.

LECTURE 1:Examine the importance of the invisible primary with your students.

The “invisible primary” refers to the period between which a candidate announces an intention to run for a particular office and the time at which the actual primaries take place.
During the invisible primary, candidates are seeking to accomplish two things:

First, they want to raise money and lay the infrastructure for their campaign, recruiting volunteers, establishing field offices, and so on. The increasingly compressed timeframe for the primary season makes this even more difficult, as candidates must focus on all of the competitive primaries rather than being able to focus on just a few states at a time as they could during a more spread out primary season.

Second, they want to establish momentum for their candidacy, establishing themselves as a viable candidate in the eyes of the electorate and the media.

In many primary seasons, the candidate who most successfully finishes the invisible primary handily wins the actual primary and the party’s nomination.

LECTURE 2:Students often take the right of political participation for granted and may not always appreciate or understand the voting restrictions that jurisdictions have imposed. Lead an interesting lecture on this topic.

At times, states have limited the right to vote in particular elections to persons who have a special interest or stake in the outcome. Such limitations on the franchise develop, ostensibly, from the perception that voters with an interest in the election would cast more fullyconsidered ballots and that such voters should thus be accorded a greater voice in determining the election’s outcome.
Although the Supreme Court has not declared such limitations on the right to vote unconstitutional per se, it has developed a test of constitutionality that few such restrictions can survive.

Kramer v. Union Free School District (1969) constituted the Court’s first exploration of this issue. In the case, a childless bachelor who lived with his parents and thus neither owned nor leased property challenged a New York statute that limited the vote in certain school district elections to property owners or lessees and parents of children in the school district. The state attempted to justify the law by invoking the need to confine the franchise to the group that was “primarily interested in school affairs.”

The state argued, among other things, that the issues involved were complex and that materials explaining these issues were sent home with the children; therefore, nonparents were less informed than parents. The Court, applying vigorous equal protection scrutiny, found the statute unconstitutional because it was not carefully tailored to affect that interest. The statute, said the Court, included many persons who have only a remote and indirect interest in school affairs and excluded others who have a distinct and direct interest in school affairs.

The dissenting judges said that the state had the right to limit those who could vote in the manner it did and that if this person was entitled to vote, then the same argument could be made by any other person who expressed an interest in voting but would not normally be allowed to vote in school district elections, such as minors and those living in another state.

In other similar cases, the Supreme Court has ruled in the following manner:

Overturned a statute permitting only real property owners to vote on a bond issue
Overturned a state statute that included a durational residency requirement
Upheld a state statute denying convicted felons the right to vote
Upheld statutes allowing only real property owners to vote in “water storage district” elections
Upheld a state statute denying those awaiting trial in jail the right to vote by absentee ballot.

LECTURE 3:In a primary election, voters decide which candidate will represent the party in the general election.

Differentiate between competing types of primaries used in the United States.

In closed primaries, only registered members of the party are allowed to vote. For example, only registered Republicans are permitted to vote for the Republican candidate, and only registered Democrats are permitted to vote for the Democratic candidate. Closed primaries allow the party maximum control and promote party strength.
In open primaries, anyone is permitted to vote regardless of party affiliation. Republicans and independents are allowed to vote in the selection of the Democratic nominee and vice versa. Open primaries are considered more democratic since participation is open to all voters, regardless of party affiliation
Blanket primaries are similar to open primaries, except that voters may choose to vote in either party’s primary, but not both, on an office-by-office basis. The central difference is that in an open primary, a voter must select a single party in whose primary election he or she will participate. In a blanket primary, by contrast, a voter might participate in the Republican primary for president, the Democratic primary for governor, and so on.
In a runoff primary, the two candidates with the most votes stand in the general election, regardless of party. A runoff primary could result in a general election in which two members of the same political party compete against one another for the office.

LECTURE 4:Explain the changes to the presidential nominating process since 1972.

The process for selecting nominees for president is not governed by the U.S. Constitution but has developed instead through the practices of states and political parties. Prior to 1972, the state delegations responsible for nominating a party’s candidate for president were chosen by party leaders. This change was facilitated by the chaos at the 1968 Democratic National Convention, where Hubert Humphrey secured the party’s nomination despite strong support for Eugene McCarthy. Following the 1968 fiasco, the McGovern-Fraser Commission, sponsored by the Democratic National Committee, recommended reforms to the nomination process to introduce greater transparency. The Republican Party adopted similar reforms.
Today, the vast majority of delegates to the national party conventions are selected by the voters, either through caucuses or primary elections. In general, these delegates are pledged to vote for a particular candidate.

Caucuses are meetings of the party in which participants select a candidate for office. Iowa, Texas, and Nevada all use party caucuses to decide their presidential nominees.

Primary elections are votes, usually by the party members, to select a candidate to represent the party in the general election. Primaries can be open or closed. Most states use primary elections to select their presidential nominee.

Still, a handful of delegates are appointed by the party at either the national or state level. These delegates, often referred to as “superdelegates,” are members of Congress, governors, and other distinguished party members. They are not promised to a particular candidate and are free to vote for any candidate they choose.

In most years, superdelegates are not important, as the party is generally unified behind a single candidate by the time the party convention takes place. In the 2008 election, though, it looked like the competition for the Democratic nomination—between Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama—might come down to the decision of a small number of superdelegates.

LECTURE 5:Differentiate between the processes used in the Democratic and Republican party primaries.

The Democratic Party allocates delegates through primary elections on a proportional basis. Thus, if a candidate receives 40 percent of the popular vote in the primary election, he or she will receive 40 percent of the delegates from that state.
Until 2012, the Republican Party allocated delegates through primary elections on a winner-take-all basis. Thus, no matter how narrow a candidate’s margin of victory, that candidate received all of that state’s delegates. This had the advantage of making elections more decisive and often meant that the Republican nominee was selected earlier than the Democratic nominee.

Today, some Republican primaries are allocated on a proportional basis. While this makes it easier for candidates to accumulate delegates, it also stretches out the primary campaign season.

In other states, Republican primaries have become more exclusive, with strict requirements for candidates to even make it onto the ballot. In Virginia, for example, candidacy requirements were so strict that only Mitt Romney and Ron Paul even made it onto the ballot. Other popular candidates—including Newt Gingrich, Rick Perry, Michele Bachman, and Rick Santorum—failed to qualify.

Explain the key objectives of any political campaign.

LECTURE 1:Differentiate between the three stages of the presidential campaign process.

Persons seeking to have a viable chance at winning the presidency must first secure the nomination of one of the two major political parties in the United States. Part of this process includes raising money and developing a campaign infrastructure that will carry the candidate through the nomination process and into the general election. This is often referred to as the invisible primary. During this first stage, candidates develop name recognition and campaign in primary elections and party caucuses to secure their party’s nomination.
The party’s nominee is formally named at the national party convention, generally held in late summer of a presidential election year. The party conventions mark the formal launch of the presidential campaign season, with each party rallying behind their nominee. Party conventions generate excitement and energize the party base. In addition to formally nominating the party’s candidate for president and vice president, the party conventions also adopt the official party platform and provide plenty of opportunities for rising party stars and distinguished party veterans to address the party membership and the American electorate more generally.
After the party convention comes the general election. During this period, candidates generally crisscross battleground states, seeking to lay out a path to secure the minimum 270 electoral votes necessary to win the presidency. Television and radio advertising usually play a more important role during the general election. Fundraising is also critical, as advertising, campaign staff, get-out-the-vote drives, and other campaign-related expenses mount.

LECTURE 2:Running for president is a long and complex task, involving hundreds of paid campaign staff members (and often tens of thousands of unpaid volunteers) and costing hundreds of millions of dollars. Securing the party’s nomination is just the first step in this process.

Examine the presidential campaign process with your students and outline the politics of presidential campaigns after party nomination.

The presidential campaign finance system provides funds to match small individual contributions during the nomination phase of the campaign for candidates who agree to remain within spending limitations.
Presidential hopefuls face a key dilemma. To get the Republican nomination, a candidate has to appeal to the more intensely conservative Republican partisans, those who vote in caucuses and primaries and actively support campaigns. Democratic hopefuls have to appeal to the liberal wing of their party as well as to minorities, union members, and environmental activists. But to win the general election, candidates have to win support from moderate and pragmatic voters, many of whom do not vote in the primaries.
Selection of a vice presidential nominee usually garners a campaign considerable attention. Vice presidential candidates are often used to address a liability in the presidential campaign or to shore up support from a particular region or group.
Televised presidential debates are a major feature of presidential elections. Since 1988, the nonpartisan Commission on Presidential Debates has sponsored and produced the presidential and vice presidential debates. Minor-party candidates often charge that those organizing debates are biased in favor of the two major parties. To be included in presidential debates, such candidates must have an average of 15 percent or higher in the five major polls the commission uses for this purpose.
Presidential candidates communicate with voters in a general election and in many primary elections through the media: broadcast television, radio, cable television, and satellite radio.
Candidates must also be legally eligible and on the ballot in enough states to be able to win at least 270 electoral votes.

LECTURE 3:Examine the importance of selecting a theme or message for a political campaign, using key themes from historical campaigns. You may also find powerful commercials thatillustrate some of these themes.

In 1964, President Lyndon Johnson campaigned on a platform arguing that his opponent, Barry Goldwater, was too unstable to defend the country and deal with the threat of communism in Southeast Asia. His “Daisy” ad ( one of the most powerful political commercials in campaign history.
President Ronald Reagan chose to run a more upbeat campaign in 1980. His “Morning in America” ( illustrates the hopefulness of his campaign.
In 2012, President Barack Obama used a speech by Mitt Romney to paint him as out of touch with American voters:
An outstanding collection of ads is available at the Living Room Candidate website:

LECTURE 4:Use video clips to illustrate the importance of strong communication skills in political leaders.

President Ronald Reagan was known as the great communicator.

Reagan’s 1980 campaign: “Are you better off than you were four years ago?”

Regan’s 1987 speech at the Brandenburg Gate: “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall.”

Reagan’s 1989 farewell address.

President Bill Clinton was an effective orator, but he excelled in interpersonal communication, projecting a sense of connection with the average voter.

His performance in the 1992 debate with George H.W. Bush illustrated this ability to connect: His performance stood in contrast with that of President Bush:

His response to the Oklahoma City bombing, perhaps most notably his “I feel your pain” ( also illustrates this skill.

President Barack Obama evoked memories of historic figures like Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Kennedy brothers (John and Robert).

In 2004, Barack Obama, who was running for the U.S. Senate at the time, delivered the keynote address at the Democratic National Convention. His “Red State, Blue State” speech ( represented his oratory skills.

Even more powerful was his “We Are One People” speech ( after taking second place to Hillary Clinton in the New Hampshire primary.

Screen video footage of their speeches and discuss the importance of strong oratory skills for elected leaders.

LECTURE 5:Whether you supported or opposed the candidate, the 2008 Obama presidential campaign clearly rewrote the rulebook on political mobilization.

Explore the ways in which the 2008 Obama campaign mobilized voters in support of their platform.

The 2008 Obama campaign was the first presidential campaign to make extensive use of social media to connect directly to the voters. This had several important implications.

It allowed the campaign to raise significant amounts of money by appealing directly to potential supporters in targeted ways. Because of this, the Obama campaign could target microgroups of supporters with individual messages.

It also kept Obama’s supporters mobilized and energized. The campaign was able to send regular updates in the form of text messages, tweets, and e-mails to millions of supporters, maintaining a strong sense of community and engagement.

The use of social media also facilitated greater engagement among young voters, who turned out in record numbers in support of Obama.

The 2012 Obama campaign continued to make use of social media but also expanded into widespread use of data mining to reach potential supporters.

Outline how the financing of federal campaigns is regulated by campaign finance laws.

LECTURE 1:The U.S. ideal that anyone—even a person of modest or little wealth—can run for public office and hope to win has become more of a myth than a reality.