DIFFERENCES IN SOME PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS BETWEEN PUPILS WITH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TOWARDS ENDURANCE ACTIVITIES IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION
RAZLIKE V NEKATERIH PSIHOLOŠKIH ZNAČILNOSTIH MED UČENCI S POZITIVNIMI IN UČENCI Z NEGATIVNIMI STALIŠČI DO VZDRŽLJIVOSTNIH AKTIVNOSTI V ŠPORTNI VZGOJI
Branko Škof1*, Saša Cecić Erpič1, Dušica Boben2, Vlasta Zabukovec3
1 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Sport, Ljubljana, Slovenia
2 Center for Psychodiagnostic Resources Ltd., Ljubljana, Slovenia
3 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts, Ljubljana, Slovenia
* Corresponding author:
Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana
Gortanova 22, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Tel.: +386 1 5207783
Fax.: +386 1 5207730
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Abstract
The aim of the study was to find out which factors of motivational orientation, attitudes towards sports activity, classroom climate, children’s competency in the physical education classes and their actual sports activity most significantly differentiate pupils with positive and negative attitudes towards physically demanding, i.e. endurance contents. The study included 1477 pupils from 33 primary and 33 high schools from all 12 Slovenian regions. Discriminant analysis showed that the most significant differences between groups of pupils with positive and negative attitudes towards physically more demanding activities resulted from: level of participation in sports activity, appreciation of health and ascetic components of physical activity, task orientation focus and endeavour to improve oneself. To increase the influence of physical education on young people’s lifestyle and the role of physical activity in their system of values, it would be reasonable to improve explication of the physical education process (better knowledge and understanding) and focus more attention on pedagogical approach so as to develop pupils’ inner motivation. Endurance contents should play a very important role in this process.
Key words: attitudes, physical education, endurance activities, pupils
Izvleček
Namen študije je bil ugotoviti, kateri dejavniki s področja motivacijske orientiranosti, stališč do športne aktivnosti, razredne klime, kompetentnosti učencev pri pouku športne vzgoje in njihove dejanske športne aktivnosti v največji meri diferencirajo skupine učencev s pozitivnimi in nizkimi stališči do telesno zahtevnejših – kondicijskih vsebin. V študijo je bilo vključenih 1477 učencev in dijakov 33 osnovnih in 33 srednjih šol iz vseh 12 regij Slovenije. Diskriminantna analiza je pokazala, da skupino učencev s pozitivnimi stališči do telesno zahtevnejših športnih aktivnosti od skupine z negativnimi stališči v največji meri ločijo obseg njihove športne aktivnosti, vrednotenje zdravstvene in asketske komponente telesne aktivnosti, v nalogo usmerjena ciljna naravnanost in težnja k lastnemu napredku. Za pomembnejši vpliv športne vzgoje na življenjski slog mladine in povečanje vloge telesne dejavnosti v njihovem vrednostnem sistemu je zato smiselno izboljšati osmišljenost procesa športne vzgoje (več znanj in razumevanja itd.) in usmerjati več pozornosti v pedagoška ravnanja za razvoj notranje motivacije učencev. Kondicijske vsebine bi v tem procesu morale imeti zelo pomembno vlogo.
Ključne besede: stališča, športna vzgoja, vzdržljivostne aktivnosti, učenci
Introduction
The amount of physical activity of youth in Slovenia has been declining (Strel, Šturm, Ambrožič, Leskošek, & Štihec, 1995) similarly to the rest of developed world, resulting in a decrease in their physical abilities. Ntoumanis (2002) has found that the level of sports activity and consequently of fitness of British youth is too low to have any positive influence on health. Concern for increase of physical activity of young people and their physical fitness, which is an important ingredient of a healthy lifestyle, is one of the key tasks of the physical education curriculum in many European countries, including Slovenia (Assche, Auweele, Metlushenko, & Rzewnicki, 1999; Kovač & Novak, 1998a, 1998b).
Researches confirm that formation of positive attitudes of a young person towards physical activity is an important step towards his or her actual participation in activity. In the study by Smoll and Schutz (1980) the attitudes towards physical activity explain 20% of variance of actual physical activity of 16 to 18 year-old youth. In the study of 1986, Godin and Shephard found that the attitude of 13 to 15 year-old youth towards physical activity, their previous experience with physical activity as such and their current habits explain almost 50% of variance of participation in physical activity.
Formation of positive attitudes towards physical activity or individual types of physical activity depends on numerous intertwined factors. According to social psychology, the following factors are considered to significantly influence the formation and changing of attitudes (Nastran-Ule, 2000): information and knowledge, personal qualities and characteristics, and belonging to a group. These three factors are also decisive in the formation and changing of attitudes of young people towards physical activity. It is known that changes in attitudes result from increased knowledge, broader experiences and higher level of understanding (Ajzen, 1988). Already in 1976, Smoll, Schutz and Keeney on a sample of 264 pupils established a strong correlation between attitudes towards sports activity (CAPTA questionnaire: Children Attitudes toward Physical Activity) and participation of pupils in the sports activity programmes, and their sports efficiency.
Regular physical activity contributes to the formation of positive attitudes towards sports activity and healthy lifestyle, as confirmed by many other studies (e.g. Adams & Brynteson, 1992; Birtwistle & Brodie, 1992; Schutz, Smoll, Carre, & Mosher, 1985; Susust, 1987). The results of these studies show that pupils acquire experience and knowledge with sports activity and develop stronger understanding of the importance of physical activity for health and physical fitness. Therefore, the cognitive side of the physical education classes (greater knowledge and broader understanding of the basic principles of development of psycho-physical abilities, safe and efficient sports training etc.) is a very important element of curriculum.
Formation and changing of attitudes towards physical activity also depend on personal characteristics and qualities that determine self-image of an individual. Individuals with high levels of self-confidence and positive self-image will endeavour to develop a more harmonized and stronger structure of attitudes. Individuals with negative self-image and low self-confidence develop unstable, often incoherent attitudes (Nastran-Ule, 2000). The results of the studies (Marcina, Škof, Cecić Erpič, Boben, Zabukovec, & Tomažin, 2002; Škof, Cecić Erpič, Zabukovec, & Boben, 2002) have shown that the attitudes of young people towards endurance activities are significantly influenced by a personal characteristic conscientiousness, which is defined by features such as reliability, care, orderliness and perseverance. Pupils with more positive attitudes towards endurance sports activities were also highly motivated (especially intrinsically) by physical education than pupils with negative attitudes towards these sports activities.
Groups to which an individual belongs and relations within these groups are among the most important factors in the formation of attitudes. A particularly important role in the formation of attitudes is played by primary and referential groups (Nastran-Ule, 2000). A person grows up in one of the primary groups (usually family), develops first skills and gains experience; close emotional ties are formed and they strongly influence the individual. Referential groups are those whose system of values an individual accepts and identifies with the most; therefore, their influence is especially strong. In the life of a young person peer referential groups have the strongest influence. Researches show that referential groups of an individual may also be those which he or she does not belong to, but wishes to. It has been established that in the formation of attitudes towards endurance activities, sports activity of the close family, especially the father, is significantly correlated with positive attitudes of young people towards these activities (Kukovič, 2001). Apart from the family environment, an even stronger influence on the positive attitude towards endurance activities is exerted by physical education, teacher’s pedagogic approach and the climate during physical education classes. Numerous studies (Digelidis, Papaioannou, Laparidis, & Christodoulidis, 2003; Ferguson, Yesalis, Pomrehn, & Kikpatrik, 1989; Kukovič, 2001; Marcina et al., 2002; Škof et al., 2002) show that teacher’s behaviour in formation of classroom relationships, adequate motivation of pupils, other mechanisms of classroom climate, selection of contents and value orientation of teaching significantly impact pupils’ attitude towards sports activity.
The aim of the following study is to establish which factors (in the sphere of motivational orientation, classroom climate, competency in physical education classes, active participation of young people in sports activities and their interests) most significantly differentiate between groups of pupils with positive and negative attitudes towards physically more demanding – endurance contents. Identification and understanding of the factors constituting the opposite poles of the value orientation of young people’s attitudes towards selected sports contents are important from both theoretical and practical aspects. From the theoretical aspect, it is an imperative to identify the structure of attitudes through a prism of complex and multi-dimensional construction and insight in interdependent influences.
From the practical aspect, it is important to recognise in what way and to what extent physical education environment and actual pedagogical performance of teachers – by means of changing pupils’ motivation, influencing their perception of (un)successfulness during physical education classes and other factors – influence the formation of attitudes of young people towards the important segment of the curriculum contents of physical education. Furthermore, the practical aspect is important in recognising behavioural patterns of individual polarised profiles. Thus, teachers will be able to assess and modify their methods of work, especially in the case of rejecting attitudes towards individual contents. Understanding of young people’s attitude towards individual physical education tasks and knowledge of their structure could help teachers to improve the quality of their relations and have a positive experience with pupils. From the theoretical point of view, it can be expected that groups of pupils with different attitudes will differ in terms of characteristics and behaviour observed. In the group of pupils with a positive attitude, task orientated motivation, higher competency in physical education, higher satisfaction with classroom climate and higher level of physical activity should be noticed, compared with the group of pupils with a less positive attitude towards endurance activities.
Method
Participants
The study included 1477 pupils from different primary and high schools across Slovenia. Sampling was stratified and systematic. 33 primary and 33 high schools from all 12 Slovenian regions were included in the sample. Schools were selected randomly from the list of schools. Pupils from one of the 7th primary school class (last by alphabet order) were included into the sample of primary schools, and pupils from one of the 2nd high school class (last by alphabet order) were selected. Among the selected high schools were schools with general programme, i.e. grammar schools (11 classes: 276 pupils or 34%), technical schools (15 classes: 374 pupils or 47%) and vocational schools (8 classes: 155 pupils or 19%), the ratio thus being 3 : 5 : 2. The sample altogether consisted of 805 high-school pupils (55%), representing 3% of the generation, and 672 primary-school pupils (45%), representing 2.8% of the generation. 758 subjects were male (51%) and 699 were female (49%), while no data was available for the gender of 20 subjects. The average age of primary school pupils in the sample was 13.3 (SD = 0.5 years) and of high-school pupils 16.4 years (SD = 0.7 years).
Instruments
Pupils’ attitudes towards endurance activities
Pupils’ Attitudes towards Endurance Activities Questionnaire was developed (Škof, Cecić Erpič, Boben, & Zabukovec, 2000) to measure attitudes of children and youth towards endurance and other physically demanding sports activities (e.g. endurance running, cycling, trekking, training of muscular strength and endurance) in the process of physical education. The instrument was based on a theoretical construct (Martens, 1975; Rot, 1983) where the attitude towards individual phenomenon was considered as multi-dimensional category, which includes the cognitive, emotional and action components. For the pilot sample, the internal consistency (reliability) of the questionnaire (Crombach alpha) was 0.92.
The questionnaire included 14 statements on a five-point Likert-type scale (mark 5 representing strong agreement and mark 1 strong disagreement). Marking of the answers to the statements was then reversed. The questionnaire consisted of two dimensions:
a) Emotionally active dimension (EMO) includes 7 items signifying the emotional relationship of young people with endurance sports activities of physical education. An example is: "I like physically demanding contents of PE (e.g. strength exercising or endurance running)".
This dimension also includes statements reflecting the actual level of activity of individuals within these contents of physical education.
b) Cognitive dimension (COG) includes 7 items signifying the opinion about positive effects of endurance activities and also knowledge of young people about these contents of physical education. An example is: "People stay healthy and feel well by exercising regularly”.
Internal consistency of EMO and COG was 0.85 and 0.78 respectively.
Attitudes towards physical activity
Attitude towards Physical Activity Questionnaire (ATPA; Kenyon, 1968) was used to measure the attitude of young people towards physical activity. The instrument was suitably modified to the sports and cultural environment of Slovenia (Marcina, Cecić Erpič, Škof, Boben, & Zabukovec, 2004). ATPA includes 28 statements on a five-point Likert-type scale (mark 5 representing strong agreement and mark 1 strong disagreement).
Individual statements were selected out of 47 statements on the basis of the results of a pilot study (Marcina, Škof, Cecić Erpič, Boben, & Zabukovec, 2003). Based on a factor analysis 5 dimensions were formed, since the dimensions relaxation and socialising indicated low reliability (Crombach alpha below 0.70). Additionally, the statements of these two factors overlapped. Therefore, one common dimension physical activity as a social experience and catharsis was formed. Factor analysis confirmed 5 dimensions:
a) Physical activity as the pursuit of vertigo (VE). It includes 6 items representing certainty in adventure and participant’s experience with certain danger in physical and sports activity.
b) Physical activity as an aesthetic experience (AEST). It includes 6 items. Many people believe that the beauty of movement as an ingredient of art is an important part of sports activity.
c) Physical activity as a social experience and catharsis (SECA). It includes 5 items. Physical and sports activity satisfies certain social needs of a person. This dimension is being emphasized by people, who consider socialisation and contact networking with new people a primary goal.
d) Physical activity for health and fitness (HF). Physical and sports activity is known to help preserve health and vitality. Individuals value physical activities based on their impact on health and psychophysical fitness. HF includes 5 items.