Richard Meakin
Bibliography: GIS for healthcare in sub-Saharan Africa.
This bibliography is intended to provide a near comprehensive collaboration of resources on the subject of GIS for healthcare in Sub-Saharan Africa. The bibliography is divided into three sections firstly relevant journal articles, secondly books, and finally interesting websites and news articles. Each section is ordered alphabetically.
1.Journals
1.1
Brooker S,Hay SI, Issae W,Hall A,Kihamia CM,Lwambo NJS,Wint W,Rogers DJ,Bundy DAP, 2001, “Predicting the distribution of urinary schistosomiasis in Tanzania using satellite sensor data”, Tropical Medicine & International Health, Volume 6,Number 12, pp. 998-1007
This is another paper that specialises on a specific health issue, in this case urinary schistosomiasis in Tanzania. The paper describes the use of remotely sensed (RS) satellite sensor environmental data that is used to develop prediction maps of the probability of having infection prevalence exceeding 50%, and warranting mass treatment according to World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. The paper discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the technology and concludes with the potential the method has for further development for example the ecological map can potentially define a template for those areas where existing models can be applied, and highlight areas where further data and models are required.
1.2
Brooker S, Rowlands M, Haller L, Savioli L, 2000, “Towards an Atlas of Human Helminth Infection in sub-Saharan Africa: The Use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS).” Parasitology Today, vol. 16, no. 7
This article describe progress made in mapping helminth infections in sub-Saharan Africa, highlighting the value as well as the limitations of an empirical mapping approach. The paper discusses how an international group of collaborators is attempting to redress the absence of detailed spatial information on the major helminth infections of humans. This article provides a working example of how GIS is being implemented and shows the flaws and discrepancies of the system through the missing data sets.
1.3
Fleming G, van der Merwe M, McFerren G, 2005 “Fuzzy expert systems and GIS for cholera health risk prediction in southern Africa” Environmental Modelling & Software 22 442-448
This detailed paper provides an excellent working example of GIS and health in southern Africa. The paper describes an early warning GIS prototype tool aimed at identifying favourable preconditions forcholera outbreaks. The paper focuses on these environmental preconditions and describes that if they are met, the subsequent spread ofcholera depends mainly on socio-economic factors such as human behaviour and access to safe water supply and sanitation.The methodology described relies on capturing expert knowledge and historic data that integrate climaticand biophysical parameters with epidemiological data to produce a fuzzy surface of cholera outbreak risk potential.
1.4
Hall GB, Feick RD, Bowerman RL, (nd) “Problems and Prospects for GIS-based Decision Support Applications in Developing Countries”, University of Waterloo
This paper discusses the architecture and development of two geographic information system (GIS)-based decision support tools. The countries assessed are for their readiness are two countries in Latin America (Chile and Costa Rica) and five countries in Africa (Egypt, Ghana, Mali, Cameroon and Burkina Faso). The paper discusses a set of generic principles for successful technology transfers which are presented in order to enhance the possibility of institutionalising GIS-based decision support tools in the planning process in developing countries. The paper draws conclusions that the fiveAfrican countries lag substantially behind those in Costa Rica and Chile and the former willcontinue, for the foreseeable future, to have a high level of dependency on outside intervention inorder to make progress with GIS in general and spatial decision support tools in particular.
1.5
Heard NJ, Larsen U, Hozumi D, 2004, “Investigating Access to Reproductive Health Services Using GIS: Proximity to Services and the Use of Modern Contraceptives in Malawi”, African Journal of Reproductive Health, Vol. 8, No. 2. pp. 164-179.
This is another paper that covers a specific element of health. The paper discusses its attempt to identify whether access to reproductive health services partly explains use of modern contraception in Malawi. A geographic information system (GIs) was employed to integrate health facility data from the Malawi health facilities inventory and global positioning data from the 2000 Malawi demographic and health survey. An effort to detect a plausible causal pathway was made by using distance to health services as a proxy variable for access to services. The paper concludes that increased access to reproductive health services does not seem to be the driving force of the change in contraceptive practice.
1.6
Hightower AW, Ombok M, Otieno R, Odhlambo R,. Oloo AJ, AA. Lal, 1998, “A Geographic Information System Applied To A Malaria Field Study In Western Kenya”, The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 58(3) pp. 266–272
This paper is a specific example of applied GIS in sub-Saharan Africa. The paper describes the use of the global positioning system to create a spatial map of 15 villages in Western Kenya. The map includes a comprehensive range of features including schools, four health care centres, major mosquito breeding sites, andmajor road. The map is then compared to parasitologic and entomologic data and spatial analysis is used to present some of the potential uses of the GIS/GPS data. The paper showsthat GIS software need not be mastered to conduct many useful spatial analyses once locational information has been obtained.
1.7
Kalipeni E, 2000, “Health and disease in southern Africa: a comparative and
vulnerability perspective”, Social Science & Medicine 50 965-983
This paper examines the status of health in southern Africa highlighting the disease complex and some of the factors for the deteriorating health condition, although not specific to GIS or ICT4D it provides an excellent background data source to the subject of health. The paper o€ers a detailed discussion of several interrelated themes which, through the lense of vulnerability theory, examine the deteriorating health care conditions, disease and mortality, the AIDS/HIV situation and the role of structural adjustment in the provision of health care. The paper concludes by noting that the key to a more equitable and healthy future seems to lie squarely with increased levels of gender empowerment.
1.8
Kleinschmidta I, Bagayokob M, Clarkec GPY, Craiga M and Le Sueura D, 2000, “A spatial statistical approach to malaria mapping” International Journal of Epidemiology29:355-361
This is another paper that specialises on Malaria. The paper describes a simple two-stage procedure for producing maps of predicted risk, firstly logistic regression modelling to determine approximate risk on a larger scale and secondly employing geo-statistical (‘kriging’) approaches to improve prediction at a local level.Malaria prevalence in children under 10 is modelled using climatic, population and topographic variables as potential predictors. The paper discusses the advantages and shortcomings of this approach which are discussed in the context of the need for further development of methodology and software.
1.9
Martin C, Curtis B, Fraser C, Sharp B, 2001, “The use of a GIS-based malaria information system for malaria research and control in South Africa” Health & Place 8 (2002) 227–236
This paper aims to outline the innovative development and application of a Geographical Information System basedMalaria Information System for malaria research and control in South Africa. This system is a product of collaborationbetween the Malaria Control Programmes and the Malaria Research Programme of the Medical Research Council of South Africa. The paper discusses the ability of such a system to process data into a usable format, as well as its relevance to malaria research, appropriate malaria control measures, tourism, and social and economic development. The paper also discusses the system’s potential to be applied to other diseases and areas of health that will benefit from being able to display and analyse spatial relationships basedon accurate and reliable data.
1.10
McLafferty SL, 2003 “GIS and Health Care” Annual. Revue Public Health 2003. 24:25–42
This review discusses recent literature on GISand health care. It considers the use of GIS in analyzing health care need, access, andutilization; in planning and evaluating service locations; and in spatial decision supportfor health care delivery. Although it it is not specific to sub-Saharan Africa it uses emergency response planning in the United States-Mexico border area (4), and a system to plan tuberculosis control in South Africa as examples. The review describes how health care planning technologies have been customized for particular types of health services in particular contexts.
1.11
Patz J, 2005, “Guest Editorial: Satellite Remote Sensing Can Improve Chances of Achieving Sustainable Health”, Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 113, No. 2. pp. A84-A85
This paper discusses the use of Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) in an era when of civilizations are becoming "data rich but knowledge poor." The issue this creates is a large amount of data on factors like,meteorological, air, and water pollution and soil and food contamination climate but little correlation between them. The paper uses an example of Rift Valley feveroutbreaks and technologies ability to predict an outbreak five months in advance. The paper also discusses problems with GIS systems, for example one limitation to the use of remote sensingfor the study of vector-borne disease epidemics has been cloudcover during the most critical period key to transmission for somediseases-the rainy season.
1.12
Omumbo JA, Hay SI, Goetz SJ, Snow RW, Rogers DJ, 2002 “Updating Historical Maps of Malaria Transmission Intensity in East Africa Using Remote Sensing” Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, Vol. 68, No. 2, February, pp. 161–166.
This paper is one of several that address a specific health issue. This paper discusses the importance of remotely sensed imagery that has been used to update and improve spectrum of P. falciparum infection ranges in severity from the spatial resolution of malaria transmission intensity maps.The rationalizing of such maps for malaria control is discussed, as is the potential contribution of the next during a particular day. Conclusions drawn include the advantages of using GIS.
1.13
Rogers DJ, Randolph SE, Snow RW, Hay SI, 2002, “Satellite imagery in the study and forecast of malaria”. Nature Volume 415
This very detailed paper provides an example of GIS systems in action and hwo theyr are applied. It is one of several that specialise on the health issue of Malaria. It describes how mapping and predictive modellingtools are used to investigate the factors that drive the dynamics of vector populations and malaria parasite transmission. The paper discusses the geographical limits, intensity and dynamics of the risk of malaria infection, using new tools of surveillance and it questions the relationships between climatic events, for example El Nino, and the occurrence of epidemics. The paper used particularly technical terminology but works well at providing detailed knowledge on the subject.
1.14
Tanser FC, 2002 “The application of GIS technology to equitably distribute feldworker workload in a large, rural South African health survey” Tropical Medicine and International Health volume 7 no 1 pp 80-90
This paper presents a GIS method that has numerous applications to health systems provision in developing countries where limited physical access to primary health care is a major factor contributing to the poor health of populations. The method is that of a GIS system that is used to predict average inter-homestead walking times and subdivide the study area into units of equal completion time.The paper highlights the use of GIS technology as a powerful tool in developing countries because it could help de-limi the physical access to primary health care which a major factor contributing to the poor health of populations in developing countries.
1.15
Tanser FC, le Sueur D, 2002, “The application of geographical information systems to important public health problems in Africa”, International Journal of Health Geographies.; 1: 4
This useful paper provides and almost comprehensive guide to the subject. The paper outlines the work undertaken in HIV, malaria and tuberculosis (diseases of significant public health impact and contrasting modes of transmission). It also outlines GIS trends relevant to Africa and describes some of the obstacles to the sustainable implementation of GIS. The paper discusses types of viable GIS applications and concludes with a discussion of the types of African health problems of particular relevance to the application of GIS.The paper goes into great detail in its discussion topics, for example it discusses“a continuum of diseases, on the one end there are those diseases in which GIS has limited research application and on the other there are those in which GIS is highly applicable. This continuum does not relate to the availability of ancillary data sets but rather to the inherent nature of the disease itself.”
1.16
Thomson M, Connor S, O’Neil K, 2000, “Environment Information for Prediction of Epidemics”, Parasitology Today, vol. 16, no. 4,
This short paper is not specific to Africa but it provides a nice example of the state of GIS progress at the start of the 21st Century. The paper discusses the application of GIS and its limitations. Some of the limitations include GIS remains tedious, technically complex and expensive in financial and human resource terms. The paper also describes remote sensing as being impractical and inappropriate. The paper goes on to explain some of the progress being made in with GIS systems and provides an example HealthMap which of a joint WHO/UNICEF programme based within the Cluster of Communicable Diseases at WHO in Geneva. This system was West Africa in support of health monitoring of various health issues including nutrition monitoring.
1.17
Tsoka JM, Sueur D le, 2004, “Using GIS to measure geographical accessibility to primary health care in rural South Africa”, South African Journal of Science,Volume. 100No. 7/8 329-330
This excellent paper addresses the issue of health accessibility. It demonstrates the application of GIS to measure geographical accessibility to primary health care (PHC) and its potential as a tool to assist in planning and providing health services. The paper is based on a piece of research conducted on the South Africa PHC that foundthat only one-third of the population lived within 5 km of a clinic and that clinic use declined with increasing distance indicated to the authorities that there was a shortage of these health facilities. ThroughGIS the paper showed that geographical accessibility to primary health care was not adequate and that clinic use depended on distance from PHC facilities
1.18
Wilkinson D, Tanser F, 1999, “GIS/GPS to document increased access to community-based treatment for tuberculosis in Africa”, The Lancet Volume 354
This is another paper that specialises on a specific health issue, in this case Tuberculosis. The paper describes the application of geographic information system (GIS) andglobal positioning system (GPS) technology in the Hlabisacommunity-based tuberculosis treatment programme.
documents the increase in accessibility to treatment afterthe expansion of the service from health facilities to includecommunity workers and volunteers.
2.Books
2.1
Clarke KC,(2001), Getting started with geographic information systems,Prentice Hall,London
Although not specific to Africa, this book provides a comprehensive guide to the types of GIS systems and how they are implemented. The knowledge it provides will give anyone with a particular interest in GIS the ability to understand and interpret the technological side to the system. The book tackles various issues of GIS including the Historical development of GIS, chapters on appropriate date collection and software types. The language used is concise but not jargon orientated and it appears to work well as a reference book.
2.2
De Savigny D, Wijeyaratne P, (1995), GIS, health, and epidemiology: an annotated resource guide, IDRC
Despite this being one of the older books in this bibliography it is still extremely useful as it provides highly detailed information on the subject. The book provides an excellent understanding of GIS systems, how they operate and how they can be implemented. The book covers other areas away from the African continent, but the working examples in Sri Lanker provide excellent comparisons to sub-Saharan Africa. The book also has a specific example of a project conducted in Botswana and the book also provides an excellent guide to GIS terminology. However, 1995 is a long time ago in ICT terms, as the technologies have been greatly developed since then.
2.3
Jamison D, (2006), Disease And Mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa, World Bank Publications
This book is not specific to GIS systems however; it provides a comprehensive guide to health and the state of health systems within Africa. The book discusses a range of influencing factors that have contributed to what it views as dire state of health in Africa. The book covers an extensive range of health issues and provides data on how the affects of these health problems are changing. The data this book provides would be useful in ascertaining the varying levels of threat and importance different diseases pose on the African continent.
2.4
Kawachi I, Wamala SP, (2006) Globalization and Health, Oxford University Press, US
The book is not specific to sub-Saharan Africa or GIS but it provides an interesting alternative view point of the state of Health and the role of Globalization. Many of the reports and books in this bibliography are created by outsiders looking into foreign states in developing nations and assessing the success of their GIS systems. This book provides interesting information on how these same people and their GIS systems are part of a greater discourse of Globalisation and are in fact simply branches of Globalisation. The book specifically addresses the role Health plays in evaluating and monitoring the progress of Globalization.
2.5
Lang L, (2000) GIS for Health Organizations, Medical
The book is not specific to sub-Saharan Africa but it does provide a reasonably up to date description of the use of GIS systems and the state of health care institutions in the developed world. It provides useful information for a creating a complete picture of the use of GIS for health care and highlights the future possibilities for sub-Saharan Africa. The book uses various examples to provide results and information on the implementation of GIS health programmes that can be analysed and compared to provide working examples of the best and less good ways of implementing GIS health programmes.