Barnard College, Columbia University

Barnard College, Columbia University

Department of English

Revolution and Racial Ambiguity in Saint Domingue and Philadelphia during the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)

by

Nathalie Lissain

A thesis presented to the

Department of English of Barnard College, Columbia University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelors of Arts in English Literature

12/12/11

“Deep rooted prejudices entertained by the whites; ten thousand recollections, by the blacks, of the injuries they have sustained; new provocations; the real distinction which nature has made; and many other circumstances, will divide us into parties, and introduce convulsions which will probably never end but in the extermination of one or the other race.”[1]

Black, white, and red are the colors of the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804). The natives’ black skin glistens in the sun as they proclaim their liberty in the spirit of rebellion. Red blood stains the arid ground upon which the natives dance barefoot. One man rushes into the crowd with a tarnished French flag. The crowd is filled with women and men all shades of black, white, and brown. The natives remain silent as they watch him lift it into the air. He slowly mouths the name Toussaint as he tears out the white of the cloth. As it falls to the ground, whites, free people of color and slaves repeat the name Toussaint. Although they understood that wars usually end with the brutal extermination of a race, today they fight together for the rights of Saint Domingue’s inhabitants. They realize that in the spirit of the revolution, freedom has no color and that liberty and equality become universal concepts. [2]

The Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) marks a period of history in the Americas in which the lines between race and class were occasionally blurred. The above mentioned scene is one in which blacks and whites unite in the face of the revolution. But do you believe it entirely? In Class, Culture, and Color: Black Saint – Dominguan Refugees and Early African – American Communities in the Early Republic, John Davies asserts that in Cap Francois, Saint Domingue during the revolution, blurred divisions between groups of color did in fact, exist. Although this scene suggests that during periods of war, violence, and racial conflict the nature of social relations change, one must recognize that these cross – cultural ties are not as simple they appear.[3]

Saint Domingue’s mountainous scenery, tropical climate, and utter violence provide a unique backdrop of uncertainty and change in which notions of race, class, and gender are explored. In this thesis, I will analyze the importance of Clara’s homosocial bonding with other white Creole women and the limited depictions of bonding or stories of alliance with women of color. During these moments of interracial violence and alliance, Clara feels inherently connected to these marginalized women and acquires the freedom she desires in the domestic sphere. I will attempt to prove that cross – cultural bonds are more complex than they appear as white Creole women in Saint Domingue do not always feel the bonds of friendly alliance in the company of women of color. Although Clara’s friendships and relationships are marked by uncertainty, it appears as if these personal relations with other women will impact Clara, the larger community of Saint Domingue, and the United States.

Using Sansay’s text as a point of departure, I will describe how exactly these personal experiences have greater socialand historical implications.[4]I will further build upon Sansay’s Secret History; or, the Horrors of St. Domingo and provide readers with a comprehensive understanding of cross – cultural female alliance during the Saint Dominguan exile of 1790 - 1810 in which nearly 25,000 refugees – more women than men - sought exile in the United States.[5] At the end of her novel, Sansay leaves readers with an “ironic history” in which brief moments of cross cultural bonding allude to significant events in history that were crucial in the establishment of present day America.

In Leonora Sansay’s Secret History; or, the Horrors of St. Domingo, Mary and Clara’s inattention to race slavery, generalizations regarding race, and misunderstood connections between white Creole women and women of color (slaves, mulattoes, free blacks, Spanish) are often expressed by the author. Sansay’s universal outlook on the Haitian Revolution allows readers to initially perceive the island of Saint Domingue as a “semi-utopic” society in which both sisters expresses her racially ambivalent sentiments.

The Oxford English Dictionary defines universalism as a principle regarding humanity as a whole, rather than in terms of different nations, races, etc.[6]Although Sansay believes that Creole displacement in Saint Domingue fosters an idealized community of white Creole women, she also – at times – indicates a common humanity among white Creole women and women of color who are all united on the basis of their hardships. Suddenly, race seems to become an irrelevant aspect of the text.Although the lines between black and white are blurred, these lines also indicate a divide. These divisions may not at first be apparent in the midst of all the generalizations being made regarding race in the novel. Is it reasonable then, for the author to depict these women as a whole when we are well aware that the whole is comprised of parts and that racial difference separates and divides? To a certain extent, yes. Although Sansay clearly describes her connection to white Creole women and women of color, there are moments when complete connections cannot be made. In these instances,readers question if a true cross – cultural female alliance can ever be attained on the island. We also question what – if any – is the cause of these divisions between Creole women and women of color. By mixing fiction with personal narrative, Sansay presents readers with her eye-witness account and a subjective reality of the Haitian Revolution in which she explores all possibilities, mainly, the potential of cross cultural female bonding during periods of intense inter-racial conflict.

Properly documenting the secret history behind the 1791 revolution of North Province, Saint Domingue was complicated. Many eyewitness accounts are skewed perceptions of actual occurrences that leave readers with a troubling image of a “savage people” and an “animalistic race”. Fear initially distorted what was documented during the revolution. As images of a “barbaric people” became increasingly prevalent, racism distorted the outsider’s perception of slaves. Foreigners made sense of their experiences by documenting their perceptions of history through visual art and writing.Although these two art forms are considered an effective means of analyzing crucial moments in history, they are subjective and cannot be considered mere fact. Individuals tend to document what is seen rather than what is experienced in their writing and thus, offer a one – sided view of the colonist experience abroad. Photos and drawings that depict the interracial violence and alliance during the revolution such as Boquet’s the Pillage of Cap Francois depict overwhelmingly negative images of violence towards whites, few show the reverse. [7]Photos depicting interracial alliance during this period are fairly limited.

Firsthand accounts of the revolution by writers functioned as propaganda to sustain and promote the inhumanity and brutality of the blacks. Writers often built a wall between “civilized whites” and their “barbaric enemies.” [8] In Sansay’s text, this wall is shattered and colonial and Creole women all become oppressed subjects due to their displacement by the force of the revolution.[9] Personal accounts of history like Sansay’s textprovide readers with a sense of how individuals interpreted and communicated what was seen and experienced during the revolution. She reveals an interesting facet of witness literature that I believe is crucial in the shaping of modern history. [10]Although it may not be a perfect history of cross - cultural ties, it is nonetheless a more or less accurate account of how all women negotiated and overcame patriarchal violence.

Leonora Sansay creates a new genre of autobiographical writing in this process of writing about the self in relation to other. Witness literature is a distinct form of personal accounts written primarily by women during the colonial period.[11] Michael J. Drexler describes witness literature as a genre in which “subjects exchange the position of object for the subjectivity of self – representational agency.”[12] By representing herself in her literature in the character Mary, the voice of narrative authority, Sansay delves into a world of darkness and creates a “quasi – utopic” society in which lines between race, class, and skin color are blurred.[13] Mary narrates a telling story of white Creole women and women of color in the Caribbean who leave their husbands during the revolution. She validates her eyewitness account by describing her sister Clara’s meaningful encounters and stories she has heard regarding alliance among other white Creole and native women of color. [14] Intimate connections between Saint Domingue and the United States are revealed.

In Sansay’s text, the experiences of white women, free people of color and slaves cannot be completely isolated from one another. There is a certain universality of the revolution that unites women across color lines. In her letters, women face a common vulnerability in their oppressive circumstances and passively engage in the act of resistance by fleeing from their husbands. While white Creole and some free women of color challenge the domestic abuse of their husbands, slaves flee their oppressive circumstances in search of freedom and civil liberties in the states. Thus, all women on the island of Saint Domingue are subject to the abuse of patriarchal authority.[15]

Although there seems to be signs of an emerging cross - racial network of women, scenes depicting these unique cross - cultural bonds are fairly limited.[16] While Sansay clearly demonstrates how white Creole women dealt with the personal and political violence of the revolution by bonding with other white Creole women, she briefly mentions unique alliances with women of color – some of which she has personally experienced, and most of which she has heard of from her friends. Rather than simply depicting the “true horrors of Saint Domingo” and the brutal violence betweenblacks and whites, Sansay describes how all women were unified by the patriarchal violence of the revolution.

Sansay’s text challenges attitudes towards race relations abroad and emphasizes the intimate connections between United States/European colonialism, domesticity/slavery, and most importantly, blacks/whites.[17] For Sansay’s protagonist, these are all fluid categories in which limitless connections are found. A scene from Sansay’s first letter reveals just how intimate these racial connections seem between white and colored individuals. She lays the foundation for later scenes in the novel in which interracial friendships are discussed in more detail:

On the third day the Negroes evacuated the place, and the fleet entered the harbor. Two gentlemen, who had been concealed by a faithful slave went in a canoe to meet the admiral’s vessel, and arrived in time to prevent a dreadful catastrophe. The general seeing numbers of people descending the mountain, thought they were the Negroes coming to oppose this landing and was preparing to fire on them, when these generals informed him that they were the white inhabitants and thus, prevented a mistake too shocking to be thought of. [18]

In this excerpt from her first letter, Mary makes it difficult for colonists to observe differences in skin tone. One general almost shoots a crowd of white men because he is unable to differentiate the color of the natives from the colonists. Mary feels innately connected with Saint Domingue although she is a foreigner. By bridging the gap between the colonists and the natives, Sansay blurs the line between white and black and appears to make race an irrelevant aspect of the revolution although it is the focus of the revolution. These generalizations regarding matters of race in Saint Domingue are at the heart of Sansay’s text. In her 15th letter, Clara escapes Cap Francois with her sister and six servants; however, it is unclear if the slaves are loyally accompanying their masters, are taken on this journey as personal property, or like Clara and her sister are bound for St. Jago, Cuba for purposes much like the other women on board – freedom and escape from patriarchal violence and domestic abuse.[19] She states, “We embarked at the Cape, Clara, myself, and six servants, in a small schooner, which was full of women and bound to St. Jago.” [20]Readers do not know the basis behind her inattention to race or why the slaves are travelling with her. One may presume that this supposed universalism is a way in which Clara is able to step away from the violence of the war and focus on how she can overcome the abuse of her husband in the comfort of other women in Saint Domingue. Unifying moments such as the one mentioned above are defining moments for Clara; she understands the importance of establishing cross cultural bonds with women and realizes that these relationships will ultimately shape her desire for freedom. Sansay’s experience writing the revolution through a universal lens allows her to narrow the divide between Saint Domingue and the white colonists and eventually white Creole women and women of color.

Sansay’s representation of female bonds is an important aspect of the novel. Bonding with other white Creole women is considered a means of dealing with their unfortunate circumstances. In order to truly overcome the violence of the revolution and their personal battles, women had to completely remove themselves from their oppressive environment and establish female communities in the Caribbean. Female bonding helped women like Clara to establish a separate identity apart from that of a wife or provider. Clara’s alliance with these women provides her with the tools needed to establish a new national identity as a fully liberated woman of the revolution. Clara achieves this liberation when she finally conjures enough strength to leave her husband and free herself from the chains of marriage.

Although Clara has been married for some time, she still considers herself “alone” and “wretched” as she is constantly abused by her husband. The cruelty of her marriage is too much to bear as it offers no liberty. Clara’s husband has treated her so badly that she has begun to internalize the repression imposed upon her by her husband. She faces a dual struggle to overcome societal notions of female inferiority as well as internalized notions of her limited value as a white Creole woman. Sansay describes Clara’s condition in her second letter:

She sighs for conquest because she is a stranger to content, and will enter into every scheme of dissipation with eagerness to forget for a moment her internal wretchedness. She is unhappy, though surrounded by splendor, because from the constitution of her mind, she cannot derive happiness from an object that does not interest her heart.[21]

Clara understands and acknowledges her subjugation. She is unhappy with her “internal wretchedness” and it is implied that her marriage will fail because of her “eagerness to forget,” and her desire for liberty. Consequently, she decides that she must remove herself from the ties of marriage and establish bonds of friendship with other women in the Caribbean.

Clara is drawn to the friendship of women in Saint Domingue, Cuba, and Jamaica. She finds comfort in them and must support them because “freedom has no color.”[22] They all share a love for freedom. In the midst of oppression, race becomes irrelevant. Clara aligns herself with other white Creole women and women of color because they have all been refused their independence. Women must explore all avenues to achieve the independence they desire.

Although both white Creole and women of color are similar, the repressive institutions in which they find themselves victims differ. While the institution of slavery and colonialism suppress slaves in Saint Domingue, abusive marriage initially hinders the protagonist and Cuban women from achieving complete freedom. However, these lines are not entirely fixed and there is overlap to a certain extent. Mary briefly draws a parallel between white Creole women and black slaves by comparing the restrictive conditions of a wife to her husband and the conditions of female slaves in relation to their masters. In her fourthletter, Mary describes this feeling of attachment and fidelity along with an innate desire to leave. She states, “Yet even with among these slaves, self – emancipated, and rendered furious by a desire of vengeance, examples of fidelity and attachment to their masters have been found, which do honour to human nature.”[23] Like slaves, white women feel connected to their patriarchal figures and often feel compelled to stay in their abusive relationships. White Creole women desire freedom from their oppression but initially cannot “revolt” because there is something at the heart of every patriarchal relationship in which victims feel compelled to stay.And yet, “negroes…have at length acquired knowledge of their own strength.”[24] Her depiction of Clara and slaves as victims with a spirit of rebellion reveals the potential of all women in the Caribbean to rise above their oppressive circumstances and emerge with greater independence and “familial” bonds to the female community.