Article for Dialogue Australasia Journal

Article for Dialogue Australasia Journal

“Sport and Spirituality; An Ancient Connection for our Modern Times.”

“To have religion, you need to have heroic forms to try to live up to. You need to have a pattern of symbols and myths that a person can grow old with. You need to have a way to exhilarate the human body, and desire, and will, and the sense of beauty. All these things you have in sports.” (Novak 1976)

This article will argue that religion and sport are two of the most enduring and widely practiced activities known to humanity and that they are inextricably linked. The terms “religion” and “spirituality” will be used interchangeably and the lenses of History, Sociology, Psychology, Ethics, and Theology will be used to compare the functions and experiences of sport and spirituality. The Australian love affair with sport will be examined as will the role of the media in creating myths and heroes (often through the extensive use of religious metaphors in sports journalism). The peculiarly Christian use of sport as an evangelical tool will also be explored, along with the ways in which sport and a “Christ-like” approach to life may at times fit well and at other times involve a clash of values.

HISTORY.

Sport has been a form of “diversion” for human beings for thousands of years. It has been a source of gathering, belonging, enjoyment, competition, play, preparation for war, violence and divine blessing. In fact wherever it began in the ancient world it had a religious connotation because everythingdid. From the Igbo tribes of West Africa with their wrestling bouts to the Mayan civilizations of South America with their violent “ball” sports (usually involving an opponent’s severed head), ancient cultures sought the blessing of the gods through their games.

The most famous examples emerged in Ancient Greece in the early 700’s BCE. The Pythean, Isthmian, Nemean, Athenaic and Olympic games were sacred festivals and an integral part of the religious life of the Hellenes. Those who took part did so in order to serve their particular god. For example the Olympic games honoured Zeus, the Isthmian games were in honour of Poseidon and Delphi and the Nemean games honoured Apollo.

Eventually the Olympic Games took precedence and although the reasons behind their origins remain a mystery, they soon followed a pattern with funeral rites to Pelops and sacrifices to Zeus. “The athletic events were held in order to persuade the god to return from the dead, to reappear in the form of a new shoot emerging from the dark earth into the light of day.” (Drees 1968)

The competition evolved over time from the simple stade race (one length of the stadium) in 776BC to an elaborate program of foot and chariot races, boxing and wrestling (and a combination of the two called the pankration), along withdiscus and javelin.The last day included a banquet where the gods were solemnly thanked for their sponsorship of the games, and the winners were rewarded with olive branches from the sacred grove of Zeus.

Only Greek “freemen” could compete and legend has it that the competitors were naked and women were thrown off a cliff if they attended. The Games required a truce to be declared between the frequently warring Greek states, a reminder that politics and religion have always been part of the Olympic Games. Eventually the Romans developed the “Isolympics” which became extremely violent and in 393 CE, the Christian emperor Theodosius closed the games because they were seen as a form of pagan worship and idolatry. Socrates and Plato were two of the famous competitors. Socrates remained supportive of the games and their celebration of form and fitness but Plato was to reject them as “worldly” and in a state of “decay” as his philosophy evolved.

For the next 1500 years, the Christian church regarded sport as a temptation of the body and an invitation to gambling and “fleshly pursuits.” Influenced by the writings of St Paul and the ascetic monastic traditions of the Dark and Middle Ages, the Church encouraged self denial and the priority of the soul over the body. Ironically many of our modern games (such as cricket and tennis) have their origins in the recreational activities of the monks. The Puritans took this condemnation of worldly pleasures and games of chance to a new level until the theological and social breakthrough that came to be known as “Muscular Christianity.”

By the mid 19th century in England the Industrial Revolution saw a huge migration of young men to the cities with time and money on their hands (and subsequent gambling, prostitution and health issues), the growth of the British Empire and need to train a growing number of soldiers and public servants, and the perceived ‘over-feminisation’ of the Church of England. In response to these social pressures, people likeCharles Kingsley, (an American clergyman, novelist and social reformer living in England), began to preach a gospel of; “physical & moral health to be found on the fields of play,”and developed a theology of“training boys in daring, temper endurance, self restraint, fairness, and honour.”Britain’s public schools picked up on this idea of “godliness and good learning,”and developed a curriculum of Classics mixed with rowing, cricket, rugby and football.The purpose became a moral one to create Christian gentlemen; “godliness, good learning and good names comprised a potent trinity in Victorian public schools.” (Baker1992)

These ideas were formative in the creation of the modern Olympic Games. In 1875, a 12yr old Pierre de Coubertin was deeply moved by the classic “Tom Brown’s Schooldays” (an account of student life at Rugby school in England eulogising its famous headmaster Thomas Arnold). Coubertinlater made a ‘pilgrimage’ to Rugby where he had a profound experience at the foot ofArnold’s tombstone, seeing;“the cornerstone of the British Empire, created by the mixture of piety and athletic prowessespoused by many of the English public schools.”

The doctrine of ‘Olympism’ that Coubertin then developed drew on liberal Anglicanism and his own French Catholicism of the time. He saw sport as a form of new religion with its own dogmas and rituals, but especially with “religious feelings”. And so the 1st modern Olympic Gameswere “resurrected” intentionally on Easter Sunday, 5 April 1896, symbolicallyof course in Athens. The morning began with a holy mass for athletes in the main cathedral with a sermon preached by Coubertin’s mentor, the French Dominican friar Fr Henri Didon. At 11am Greek royal family arrived to hear a choir sing the ‘Te Deum.’ At the stadium a new Olympic hymn was sung to “The immortal Spirit of antiquity, Father of the true, the good and the beautiful.”Prayers were then led by both Catholic and Protestant church leaders.

Coubertin’s ‘secular, reconstructed faith’ had an evangelist’s fervour as he poured vast amounts of time, money and energy into making the modern Olympic Games happen. ‘Have faith in it pour out your strength in it, make its hope your own,’he wrote.He saw; athletes as disciples of a new ‘muscular religion’, spectators and coaches as the ‘laity of sport’, and the International Olympic Committee as ‘a college of disinterested priests.’He wanted athletes to be imbued with ‘a sense of the moral grandeur of the games so that their vulgar competition could be transformed and sanctified.’ And he wanted ceremonies with ‘symbolic power of multiple significance’ that he knew always need;a sense of history, an educational content, an artistic projection, andan underlying religious element.

The other ‘fruits’ of Muscular Christianity were; sports evangelism (including chaplaincies), the YMCA, YWCA and Scouting movements and the huge commitment of time and money for sport in the religious school system that continues to the present day.

EVANGELISM

Evangelical Christians grew, under the influence of Muscular Christianity, to see the Bible ascontaining the elements of a theology of sport and leisure (eg;rest on the Sabbath, ‘be still and know that I am God,’ train and harden the body to ‘bring it under subjection’,tell the Good News of Jesus to all people by whatever means you are able, run the race and keep the faith,use your talents in all areas of life, and perhaps above allthe idea that the body is a ‘temple for the holy spirit’).Consequently sports ministrieswere developed by many churches and para-church groups as a leisure time activity with the intention of helping people become aware of their need for a relationship with God.

Sport had become accepted as a way of building character, and some American evangelists even use a term known as “Christmanship” for physical and spiritual health and the modelling of a good life.Christmanship was seen to encourage athletes to “live out characteristics, attitudes and skills that emulate Christ and conform to his image in the arena of competition.” (Linville 2003).

Christian athletes, the evangelists claim, need to learn to; put others first, respect coaches and referees (especially when contentious decisions are made), and show utter respect for opponents (which may include encouraging them and wishing them well). Sport can be an ideal evangelical tool, especially for young men from troubled backgrounds. It allows the evangelist to get up “close and personal” and may lead to very enjoyable relationships. With time, space, tools, money and people to help, sports ministry is seen as a great way of getting involved with a church, or maybe even leading them to faith. In the 20th century, Billy Graham, the great American evangelist often invited famous athletes to give their testimonies at his rallies and people like Eric Lidell (of “Chariots of Fire” fame) used their sporting success to share their Christian message.

Contact sports pose a particular challenge to spiritual athletes (remembering of course that martial arts have a spiritual foundation), and there is a tension between having “winners” who become enticing role models and playing fairly and “putting the other first” or “turning the other cheek.” Interestingly, athletes from Eastern religions tend to be far less concerned with winning. The goal is much more about living “fully in the moment” which enhances performance but is far less competitive.

Sports chaplaincy is a growing area with nearly 200 chaplains to elite sporting teams in Australia. International organisations such as Athletes in Action, Christians in Sport, Fellowship of Christian Athletes, and many others support international teams who travel the world “spreading the gospel” through sport.

SOCIOLOGY

Sociological studies dating back to the early 20th centurynoticed the ways in which sport can function LIKE a religion for many people. As the traditional expressions of religion decline (particularly in the Western world),sport is filling part of the void. “If I were to show a visitor to the United States as single recurring event which has come to characterise American folk religion, the Super Bowl would be it.” (Mathison 1987)

Edwards (1973), a sociologist writes that highly competitive sport has;

• a body of formally stated beliefs,
• is accepted and followed with great passion by masses of people
• ‘saints’ or heroes from the past who manifest the values of the game
• ruling ‘patriarchs’ or coaches
• administrators and managers who control sporting bodies
• ‘gods’ or superstars who influence those who watch the games
• ‘shrines’ or halls of fame, trophy rooms and cabinets
• commandments and great sayings and stories
• hymns and chants to unify and gather people
• scribes or journalists who record the great stories and help to create heroes and myths
• the promotion of the dominant values of a society
• and‘houses of worship’ where millions congregate to bear witness to the manifestations of their ‘faith’ [i.e. Edwards actually sees sport as ‘a secular, quasi religious institution’].

Other sociologists such as Eitzen and Sage, Coakley, Durkheim and Albanese all talk about sport and religion’s parallel offering of; sacred time and space, escape from the pain and drudgery of life, transcendent experiences, exercising forms of social control, a sense of belonging, ritualising to the extent of extraordinary fetishes and superstitions, and the ability to create societal myths, heroes and legends.

In some cultures, people (often from under-privileged backgrounds),spend large amounts of money on the team uniform, buying pay TV, naming their children after their sporting heroes, purchasing expensive tickets to games and joining tribal groups who will resort to violence if necessary. Sport can indeed function likea religion for many people.

ETHICS

In the Ancient Greek sporting games 3 societal values were emphasised;

1)philotimia (love of honour) from the idea that citizens were encouraged to donate charitably to their societies. In the Greek games athletes often competed on behalf of their sponsor and communitiesand were honoured upon their return

2)philonikia (love of victory or winning) from the idea that a healthy democracy involves competition for the rewards of life. This was eulogised by the odes of Pindar where the conduct of winning athletes was carefully monitored and losers were seen as slinking home in shame.

3)dikaiosune (justice, fairness and honesty) upon which laws were based, but retaliation in sport was alright for those who overstepped the mark.

In Muscular Christianity the ethical emphasis was on;

•preparation for the challenges of life

•teaching respect for others and the rules of society

•encouraging patient endurance and unflagging moral courage

•the educational value of defeat and failure

•extension of the chivalric and ascetic belief that the body was to be trained and brought under subjection to protect the weak and advance righteous causes

•self reliance, self control, vigour and the development of character

•Empire building, i.e. creating soldiers and public servants who would serve with honour and self sacrifice

Athletes enjoy a remarkably wide range of ethical options such as; whether to intimidate an opponent; how to react to victory or defeat; how vigorously to tackle an opponent; whether or not to help an opponent to their feet; whether or not to expose oneself to physical harm; whether or not to exploit an opponent’s injury; whether or not to ‘walk’ in cricket; whether or not to acknowledge touching a ball over the boundary line, and many more. All of these decisions arenot bound by the rules of the game, the ‘spirit’ maybe but not the rules.

A real challenge occurs when the athlete’s own value system may be “higher” or more ethically developed than the rules of a particular contest.Social customs and self interest appear to be the factors that influence a sportsperson’s ethical decisions.Social customdictates a moral action because ‘everybody does it,’ eg; winning having priority over playing fairly. Disturbingly; “as athletes become more immersed in the cultural context of competitive sports; they appear to become more receptive to rule violations and increased violence.”(McIntosh 1979)

Self interest is where an athlete’s decisions are based on what they find pleasurable in the short term or most compatible with their life goals for the longer term.Actions are judged good and moral because they are focussed on achieving the ends to which the athletes are committed (usually winning). From anabolic steroids to stopping the clock with fake injuries, examples of this ethic abound.

Therefore Christian sporting ethicists call on athletes to play to the best of their God-given ability, as free as possible from social custom and self interest, and exhibitinga parallel commitment to Christian living. This providesa great opportunity for evangelism anda chance for athletes to challenge the popular culture and to practice and model good morals.

PSYCHOLOGY

Religious athletes report that theirfaith helps them to; conquer fear, overcome weariness, emerge from form slumps and negative attitudes, develop a detachment from anxiety that allows them to perform to their peak, and can act like a spur to achievement and a painkiller for failure.

Researches talk about peak experiencesin sportwhich are “moments ofhighest happiness and fulfilment when an individual entertains feelings of; unity, inner peace, wholeness of being, loss of fears and inhibitions.”(Maslow 1968)

Csikszentmihalyi (1975) talks about flow experienceswhich are felt in a “subjective state that frequently accompanies activities we find intrinsically rewarding.”Here sporting subjects report;a merging of actions and awareness, a centring of attention, anda heightened sense of control of one’s own actions and the external environment. These things can be experienced in many forms of human activities but Csikszentmihalyi calls play the “flow experience par excellence.”

Murphy and White (1978) classified the altered states of consciousness reported by athletes into 11 categories; acute well-being, peace, calm, stillness, detachment, freedom, flying, weightlessness, ecstasy, power and control, being in the present, instinctive action and surrender, mystery and awe, feelings of immortality and unity. Their study led them to conclude that; sport has enormous power to sweep us beyond the ordinary sense of self, to evoke capacities that generally have been regarded as mystical, occult or religious.