MIDLANDSSTATEUNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ARTS

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY, CULTURAL HERITAGE & MUSEUM STUDIES

ARCHAEOLOGY AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS (ARC 403)

Course Coordinator: Paul Hubbard. Email for correspondence:

COURSE SYNOPSIS

In a rapidly developing world, the use of computers in archaeology needs to be examined. This course will explore various aspects, from data structuring to data processing using computers. The use, applicability and effectiveness of complex software in archaeology will be examined, including Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and multimedia.

COURSE AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The course aims to provide students with a good working knowledge of the uses to which computers and associated information technology can be put in archaeology. A special focus on the use and abuse of GIS in archaeology will ensure that students develop an appreciation of the potentials and difficulties encountered when applying new technology to archaeological problems. The course also aims to impart a few basic skills needed in GIS applications.

READING

Students are strongly encouraged to constantly check for updates on the E-learning facility where they will be able to download relevant literature. Students are also reminded to search on the Internet for articles. Photocopies of a few articles will be made available in the Archaeology Department. The standard references for the course will be Conolly & Lake (2006) and Lock (2003). Further references may be noted during lectures.

EVALUATION

The module will be evaluated through continuous assessment that involves two assignments (25%), and examinations (75%). Students will be tested general knowledge as well as specific issues covered in the lectures and in the readings. Tutorials are compulsory to all students taking this course.

COURSE OUTLINE

1) Introduction to Computers and Archaeological Practice

  • Theoretical Considerations
  • Historical Background

2) Uses of Computers by Archaeologists

  • Applications in the Office and in the Field
  • Development of Software by Archaeologists or by Specialist Programmers?

3) Quantitative Analysis

  • Categories of Data
  • Types of Analyses
  • Problems and Prospects

4) Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

  • Historical Perspective
  • What is a GIS?
  • Types of Data Structure
  • Archaeological Applications
  • CRM and GIS
  • Potentials and Challenges with Archaeological GIS

5) Multimedia and the Internet

  • Definitions
  • Museums and Interactivity
  • Information Accessibility Revolution

6) Future Prospects and the Call of the Future

  • Open Source Software
  • Virtual Reality
  • Archaeological Computer Programming

FURTHER READING

Introduction to Computers and Archaeological Practice

Coppock, T. (ed.) 1999. Information Technology and Scholarship. Applications in the Humanities and Social Sciences. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.

Fagan, B.M. 2001. In the beginning: An introduction to archaeology. (10th edition). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Farjas, M. & and Research Team LAR. 2004. Multimedia Technology in Cartography as a tool for Archaeology. in Making the connection to the Past CAA99. Fennema, K. & Kamermans, H. (eds), Leiden: Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology.

Gamble, C. 2001. Archaeology: The Basics. London: Routledge.

Johnson, M. 1999. Archaeological Theory. An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

Lock, G. 2003. Using Computers in Archaeology. Towards Virtual Pasts. London: Routledge.

Karega-Munene. 1992. Dissemination of archaeological information: the east African experience. in Archaeology in the Information Age: a global perspective. Reilly, P. and Rahtz, S. (eds), 41-46, London: Routledge.

Orton, C. 2000. Sampling in Archaeology. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Sinclair, P.J.J., Kokonya, M., Meneses, M. & Rakotoariosa, J.A. 1992. The impact of information technology on the archaeology of eastern and southern Africa: the first decades. in Archaeology in the Information Age: a global perspective. Reilly, P. and Rahtz, S. (eds), 28-40, London: Routledge.

Renfrew, C. Bahn, P. 2000. Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice. (3rdEdition). London: Thames Hudson.

Roskams, S. 2001. Excavation. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

VanPool, C.S. & VanPool, T.L. 1999. The Scientific Nature of Postprocessualism. American Antiquity 64 (1): 33-53.

Quantitative Analysis

Conolly, J. & Lake, M.W. 2006. Geographical Information Systems in Archaeology. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Ebdon, D. 1977. Statistics in Geography: A practical approach. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Fletcher, M. & Lock, G.R. 2005. Digging Numbers. Elementary Statistics for Archaeologists. (2nd Edition). Oxford: OxfordUniversitySchool of Archaeology. (Monograph 33).

Floud, R. 1973. An Introduction to Quantitative Methods for Historians. London: Methuen & Co.

Hodder, I. & Orton, C. 1976. Spatial Analysis in Archaeology. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Mak, S. 2003. Point Pattern Analysis: Nearest Neighbour Distance and Quadrat Analysis. (Accessed 01/08/2006)

Orton, C. 1980. Mathematics in Archaeology. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Shennan, S. 1988. Quantifying Archaeology. Edinburgh: EdinburghUniversity Press.

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Aronoff, S. 1991. Geographic Information Systems: A Management Perspective. Ottawa: WDL Publications.

Benwell, G.L., McLennan, B.R., Grasberger, T. & Fryer, J. 2002. Spatial Data Analysis of Aboriginal Rock Extraction Sites at Brewarrina, NSW, Australia. Paper Presented at SIRC 2002 – The 14th Annual Colloquium of the Spatial Information Research Centre Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand, December 3rd-5th 2002 (Accessed 18/09/2006)

Bevan, A., Frederick, C. & Krahtopoulou, N. 2003. A Digital Mediterranean Countryside: GIS approaches to the spatial structure of the post-medieval landscape on Kythera (Greece). Archaeolgia e Calcolatori 14: 193-212.

Brandt, R., Groenewoudt, B.J. & Kvamme, K.L. 1992. An experiment in archaeological site location: Modelling in the Netherlands using GIS techniques. World Archaeology 24 (2): 268-282.

Burrough, P.A. & McDonnell, R.A. 1998. Principles of Geographic Information Systems. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.

Chimowa, M. & Nugent, C. n.d. A Fisheries GIS For Zimbabwe: An Initial Analysis Of The Numbers, Distribution and Size of Zimbabwe's Small Dams. FAO/UNDP ZIM/88/021.

Clarke, D.L. 1977. Spatial Information in Archaeology. in Spatial Archaeology Clarke, D.L. (ed.), 1-32, London: Academic Press.

Conolly, J. & Lake, M.W. 2006. Geographical Information Systems in Archaeology. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Fisher, P., Farrelly, C., Maddocks, A. & Ruggles, C. 1997. Spatial Analysis of Visible Areas from the Bronze Age Cairns of Mull. Journal of Archaeological Science 24: 581-592.

Gaffney, V. & Stancic, Z. 1996. GIS approaches to regional analysis: A case study of the island of Hvar. Ljubljana: Znanstveni institute Filozofske fakultete. See also

Harris, T. 2000. Session 2 discussion: Moving GIS: exploring movement within prehistoric cultural landscapes using GIS. in Beyond the Map: Archaeology and Spatial Technologies Lock, G. (ed.), 116-123, Amsterdam: IOS Press.

Hubbard, P. 2006. GIS and the Late Stone Age in Zimbabwe: An Examination of Site Patterning in the Matopos. Dissertation Submitted in Partial Requirement for the Degree of MSc in GIS and Spatial Analysis in Archaeology at the University Of London.

Hunt, E.D. 1992. Upgrading site-catchment analyses with the use of GIS: investigating the settlement patterns of horticulturalists.World Archaeology 24 (2): 283-309.

Husdal, J. 2000. How to make a straight line square - Network analysis in raster GIS Unpublished MSc Thesis, University of Leicester, UK (Accessed on 19/04/2006).

Huxhold, W. 1991. An Introduction to Urban Geographic Systems. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.

Lake, M.W. & Woodman, P.E. 2003. Visibility studies in archaeology: A review and case study. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 30: 689-707.

Lake, M.W., Woodman, P.E., & Mithen, S.J. 1998. Tailoring GIS software for archaeological applications: An example concerning viewshed analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 25: 27-38.

Llobera, M. 1996. Exploring the topography of mind: GIS, social space and archaeology. Antiquity 70: 612-622.

MacDevette, D.R. 1993. The status of advanced information technology applications for natural resource management in southern Africa. Unpublished paper for conference on “Application of Advanced Information Technologies: Effective Management of Natural Resources” June 18-19, Spokane, Washington, USA. (Accessed 12/10/2005).

Mapedza E, Wright J, & Fawcett R. 2003. An investigation of land cover change in Mafungabusi Forest, Zimbabwe, using GIS and participatory mapping. Applied Geography 23 (1): 1-36.

Martin, C.G.C. & Werz, B.E.J.S. 1999. Geographical information systems applied, to maritime archaeology, with specific reference to the Table Bay Project. Southern African Field Archaeology 8 (2): 86-99.

Mehrer, M.W. & Wescott, K.L. (eds) 2006. GIS and Archaeological Site Modelling. London: Taylor & Francis.

Nigro, J.D., Ungar, P.S., de Ruiter, D.J. & Berger, L.R. 2003. Developing a Geographic Information System (GIS) for Mapping and Analysing Fossil Deposits at Swartkrans, Gauteng Province, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science 30 (3): 317-324.

Phillips, C. 2004. GIS and Landscape analysis, or the cart before the horse? Internet Archaeology 16 (Accessed 17/12/2005).

Pwiti, G. 1996. Continuity and Change: an archaeological study of farming communities in northern Zimbabwe, AD500-1700. Uppsala: Societas Archaeologica Uppsalensis. (Studies in African Archaeology 13).

Pwiti, G. 1997. Aspects of spatial studies in Zimbabwean archaeology in Pwiti, G. (ed.) Caves, Monuments and Texts: Zimbabwean Archaeology Today, 55-68, Uppsala: Societas Archaeologica Uppsalensis. (Studies in African Archaeology 14).

San, B.T. & Süzen, M.L. 2005. Digital elevation model (DEM) generation and accuracy assessment from ASTER stereo data. International Journal of Remote Sensing 26 (22): 5013-5027.

Sawada, M. 2002/ README: Instructions to Use Nearest Neighbor Program (VBA Macro). (Accessed 10/09/2006).

Sinclair, P.J. & Lundmark, H. 1984. A spatial analysis of archaeological sites from Zimbabwe in Frontiers: Southern African Archaeology Today, Hall, M., Avery, G., Avery, D., Wilson, M. & Humphreys, A. (eds), 277-288, Oxford: British Archaeological Reports International Series 207.

Symonds, L. 2004. Moving through a vision: thoughts on contextual GIS. in Making the connection to the Past CAA99. Fennema, K. & Kamermans, H. (eds), Leiden: Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology.

Swan, L. 1994. Early Gold mining on the Zimbabwean Plateau: changing patterns of gold production in the first and second millennia AD. Uppsala: Societas Archaeologica Uppsalensis. (Studies in African Archaeology 9).

Taruvinga, P. 2001. GIS and Archaeology: A Spatial Analysis of Rock Art in the Matopo Hills Area, Southern Zimbabwe. in People, Contacts and the Environment in the African Past, Chami, F. Pwiti, G. & Radimilahy, C. (eds), 168-175, Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press. (Studies in the African Past 1).

Thorp, C.R. 2004 “Archaeological Research at Malilangwe Trust in the South-Eastern Lowveld, Zimbabwe: 2002-2003” Nyame Akuma 62: 70-77.

Thorp, C.R. 2005. Landscape and Environmental Change in Eastern & Southern Africa: Developing Interdisciplinary Approaches. (Accessed 10/12/2005).

van Leusen, P.M. 1999 “Viewshed and Cost Surface Analysis using GIS (Cartographic Modelling in a Cell-Based GIS II) in CAA ’98 New Techniques for Old Times Barceló, J.A., Briz, I. and Vila ,A. (eds.), 215-223, Oxford: Archaeopress (BAR International Series 757).

van Leusen, M. 2002. Pattern To Process: Methodological Investigations into the Formation and Interpretation of Spatial Patterns in Archaeological Landscapes. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Groningen, Netherlands OR (Accessed 16/03/2006).

Warren, R.E. 1990a. Predictive modelling in archaeology: a primer. in Interpreting Space: GIS and Archaeology. Allen, K.M.S., Green, S.W. & Zubrow, E.B.W. (eds), 90-111, London and New York: Taylor and Francis Inc.

Warren, R.E. 1990b. Predictive modelling of archaeological site location: a case study in the Midwest. in Interpreting Space: GIS and Archaeology. Allen, K.M.S., Green, S.W. & Zubrow, E.B.W. (eds), 201-215, London and New York: Taylor and Francis Inc.

Warren, R.E. & Asch, D.L. 2000. A predictive model of archaeological site location in the EasternPrairiePeninsula. in Practical Applications of GIS for Archaeologists: A predictive modelling toolkit. Wescott, K.L. & Brandon, R.J. (eds), 5-32, London and New York: Taylor & Francis.

Webster, D.S. 1999. The concept of affordance and GIS: a note on Llobera (1996). Antiquity 73: 915-917.

Wescott, K. & Brandon, J. (eds) 2000. Practical Applications of GIS for Archaeologists: A predictive modelling kit. London: Taylor & Francis.

Wheatley, D. & Gillings, M. 2000. Vision, perception and GIS: Developing enriched approaches to the study of archaeological visibility. in Beyond the Map: Archaeology and Spatial Technologies Lock, G. (ed.), 1-27, Amsterdam: IOS Press.

Wheatley, D. Gillings, M. 2002.Spatial Technology and Archaeology: The archaeological applications of GIS.London: Taylor & Francis.

Wood, J. 1996. The Geomorphological Characterisation of Digital Elevation Models. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Department of Geography, University of Leicester. (Accessed 17/02/2006).

Multimedia and the Internet

Abungu, L. 2002. Access to digital heritage in Africa: bridging the digital divide. Museum International 54 (3): 29-34.

Bogdanovic, I., Vicente, O. & Barceló, J. 2004. A Theory of Archaeological KnowledgeBuilding by Using the Internet. in Making the connection to the Past CAA99. Fennema, K. & Kamermans, H. (eds), Leiden: Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology.

Bowen, J. 2000. The virtual museum. Museum International 25 (1): 4-7.

Devine, J & R. Welland. 2000. Cultural computing: exploiting interactive digital media. Museum international 51 (4): 32-35.

Gill, T. 1995. What is Multimedia? In Multimedia. Cambridge: Museums Documentation Association. 1-7.

Gordon, S. 1999. The VirtualMuseum - who needs it? in Archaeology in the Age of the Internet CAA97Dingwall, L., Exon, S., Gaffney, V., Laflin, S. & Van Leusen, M. (eds). BAR International Series 750, Archaeopress, Oxford.

Rahtz, S. & Sinclair, P.J.J. 1994. Multimedia Information systems for East African Archaeology. Archeologia e Calcolatori 5: 219-237.

Sabin, R. 1997. Museums and their websites: an examination and assessment of how museums are coping with the challenges of the world wide web. Journal of Conservation and Museum Studies 2: 60-79.

Future Prospects and the Call of the Future

Fleming, S.J., Fitts, W.R. & Zimmerman, P.C. 2004. New Approach to the Process of Exploration and Interaction for Visitors to a Museum Exhibition. in Making the connection to the Past CAA99. Fennema, K. & Kamermans, H. (eds), Leiden: Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology.

Fuldain González, J.J. 2004. Computer Aided Drawing System on Archaeological Material. in Making the connection to the Past CAA99. Fennema, K. & Kamermans, H. (eds), Leiden: Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology.

Gaffney, C., Hughes, G. & Gater, J. 2005 Geophysical Surveys at King Lobengula’s Palace KoBulawayo, Zimbabwe. Archaeological Prospection 12: 31-49.

Gawecki, W. 2005. Bright Future for GIS in Africa. GIM International (November 2005): 36-37.

Lake, M.W. 2000. MAGICAL computer simulation of Mesolithic foraging. in Dynamics in Human and Primate Societies: Agent-Based Modelling of Social and Spatial Processes Kohler, T. A. & Gumerman, G. J. (eds.), 107–143, New York: Oxford University Press.

Rip, M.R. 1983. Digital recording and image processing of rock art by computer. South African Archaeological Bulletin 38: 77–79.

Sinclair, P.J.J. & Petrén, M. 1999. Exploring the interface between modern and traditional information systems: the case of Great Zimbabwe. in The Development of Urbanism from a Global Perspective. Sinclair, P.J.J. (ed.), (Accessed 13/03/2006).

Zimmerman, O.C., Fitts, W.R. & Pouls Wegner, M-A. 2004. SiteMap: Innovations in Computer Based Mapping for Archaeologists. in Making the connection to the Past CAA99. Fennema, K. & Kamermans, H. (eds), Leiden: Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology.

Useful Websites

Computer Applications in Archaeology Proceedings

Clark, J.T. & Hagemeister, E.M. (eds) 2007. Digital Discovery. Exploring New Frontiers in Human Heritage. CAA2006. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. Archaeolingua, Budapest.

Figueiredo, A. & Leite Velho, G. (eds) 2007. The world is in your eyes - Proceedings of the XXXIII Computer Applications in Archaeology Conference: Tomar March 2005, CAA. Portugal: Tomar.

Ausserer, K.F., Börner, W., Goriany, M. & Karlhuber-Vöckl, L. (eds) 2004. Enter the Past. The E-way into the four Dimensions of Cultural Heritage. CAA 2003, Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. BAR International Series 1227, Archaeopress, Oxford.

Doerr, M. & Sarris A. (eds) 2003. The Digital Heritage of Archaeology. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. Hellenic Ministry of Culture.

Burenhult, G. (ed.) 2002. Archaeological Informatics: Pushing The Envelope CAA2001. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. BAR International Series 1016, Archaeopress, Oxford.

Stancic, Z. & Veljanovski, T. (eds) 2001. Computing Archaeology for Understanding the Past CAA2000. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. BAR International Series 931, Archaeopress, Oxford.

Fennema, K. & Kamermans, H. (eds) 2004. Making the connection to the Past CAA99. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. CAA, Leiden.

Barceló, J. A., Briz, I. & Vila, A. (eds) 1999. New Techniques for Old Times CAA98. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. BAR International Series 757, Archaeopress, Oxford.

Dingwall, L., Exon, S., Gaffney, V., Laflin, S. & Van Leusen, M. (eds) 1999. Archaeology in the Age of the Internet CAA97. BAR International Series 750, Archaeopress, Oxford.

Lockyear, K., Sly, T.J.T and Birliba, V.M. (eds) 2000. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology 1996. Archaeopress, Oxford.

Kamermans, H. & Fennema, K. (eds) 1996. Interfacing the past: Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology 1995.University of Leiden.

Huggett, J. & Ryan, N. (eds) 1995. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology 1994. Tempus Reparatum, Oxford.

Wilcock, J. & Lockyear, K. (eds) 1994. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology 1993. Tempus Reparatum, Oxford.

Andresen, J., Madsen, T. & Scollar, I. (eds) 1993. Computing the Past: Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. 1992.AarhusUniversity Press, Aarhus, Denmark.

Lock, G. & Moffett, J. (eds) 1992. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology 1991. Tempus Reparatum, Oxford.

Lockyear, K. & Rahtz, S.P.Q. (eds) 1991. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology 1990. Tempus Reparatum, Oxford.

Several earlier onesdo exist, dating back to the early 1970s. Some articles and books mentioned in the references may be accessed at (Accessed 15 May 2008).