APHUG FURLONG

APHUG STUDY GUIDE

  1. Key Geographic Models & Theories
  2. Demographic Transition Model (DTM)
  3. Refers to the transitionfrom high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates as a country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system.

  1. Epidemiologic Transition Model
  2. Distinctive cases of death in each stage of the demographic trans. Model

  1. Gravity Model of Spatial Interaction
  2. When applied to migration, larger places attract more migrants than do smaller places. Additionally, destinations that are more distant have a weaker pull effect than do closer opportunities of the same caliber.
  1. Zelinksy Model of Migration Transition
  2. Migration trends follow demographic transition stages. People become increasingly mobile as industrialization develops. More international migration is seen in stage 2 as migrants search for more space and opportunities in countries in stages 3 & 4. Stage 4 countries show less emigration and more intraregional migration.

  1. Ravenstein’s Law of Migration

  1. Von Thünen Model of Agricultural Land Use
  2. German geographer Johann Heinrich con Thünen
  3. Explains and predicts agricultural land use patterns
  4. Thünen's model of agricultural land, created before industrialization, made the following simplifying assumptions:
  • The city is located centrally within an "Isolated State."
  • The Isolated State is surrounded by wilderness.
  • The land is completely flat and has no rivers or mountains.
  • Soil quality and climate are consistent.
  • Farmers in the Isolated State transport their own goods to market via oxcart, across land, directly to the central city. There are no roads.
  • Farmers behave rationally to maximize profits.

  1. Least Cost Theory
  2. Alfred Weber theory of industrial location
  3. Explains and predicts where industries will locate based on cost analysis of transportation, labor, and agglomeration factors
  4. Assumes an industry will choose its location based on desire to minimize production costs & maximize profits
  5. Drawbacks are assumption of immobile and equal labor force

  1. Locational Interdependence
  2. Hotelling’s theory asserts that an industry’s locational choices are heavily influenced by the location of their chief competitors and related industries
  3. Rostow’s Stages of Economic Development
  4. 1950s, example of liberal development ideology, as opposed to structuralist theory
  5. All countries develop in five-stage process
  6. Initiated by investment in a takeoff industry which sparks greater economic gain that eventually diffuses throughout economy
  7. Drawbacks include: not identifying cultural & historical development differences because its base on North American & western European development
  1. Borchert’s Model of Urban Evolution
  2. Created in 1960s to predict & explain growth of cities in four phases of transportation; fifth stage later added.
  1. Central Place Theory
  2. Hexagonal Market Areas predicted by Walter Christaller 1930s
  3. Explains & predicts patterns of urban spaces across the map

Unit Overviews

  1. Geography: Its Nature and Perspectives
  2. Geographers most interested looking into space and identifying, explaining, and predicting human and physical patterns that develop
  3. The Five Themes:
  4. Location: explains where something is on Earth
  5. Absolute location-something’s location on global grid; lines of latitude (parallel), lines of longitude (meridians)
  6. Only equator can serve as base line for latitude
  7. Prime Meridian (GMT) is base for longitude but technically any line can serve as zero degrees longitude
  8. Relative location-something’s relationship to the places around it
  9. Site & Situation-describe place location
  10. Site-place’s internal physical & cultural characteristics
  11. Situation- location of context of a place relative to physical and cultural characteristics around it
  12. Human Environment Interaction: how humans affect their environment and how environmental changes impact human life
  13. Cultural ecology-study of aspects and outcomes of human-environment interaction
  14. Regions: a spatial unit, or group of places, that share similar characteristics
  15. Three types:
  16. Formal region- are with common cultural or physical features
  17. Functional region-group of places liked by some type of movement
  18. Perceptual region- group of places linked b/c of perceptions about the region
  19. Place: All of human and physical attributes in location
  20. Human attributes- religion, clothing, languages, politics, art
  21. Physical attributes- climate, terrain, natural resources
  22. The above give a place its “sense of place” that is different from other places
  23. Movement: all types of movement in a space-information, people, goods, and more
  24. Spatial interaction-how places interact with each other
  25. Friction of distance-degree to which distance interferes or reduces the amount of interaction between two places
  26. Distance decay- intensity of some phenome decreasing as distance from it increases
  27. Geographic Models
  28. Created to understand why spatial patterns exist in the ways they do
  29. Demographic Transition Model-population change over time
  30. Physical v. Human Geography
  31. Physical- primarly concerned with spatial analysis of Earth’s natural phenomena
  32. Human- primarily concerned with spatial analysis of human patters on the Earth and their interactions with Earth
  33. Mapmaking
  34. Cartography- process of making a map
  35. Maps are 2-D model of Earth or portion of it
  36. Distortion- impossible to make round Earth on flat surface without distortion (error)
  37. Globe is most accurate
  38. Four Properties of Maps
  39. Shape-geometric shapes of objects on map
  40. Size- relative amount of space take up on map by landforms or objects
  41. Distance- measurements between objects on map
  42. Direction- degree of accuracy representing cardinal directions (NESW)
  43. Projections
  44. Gall-Peters projection is equal area b/c it represents actual area of landforms but distorts other properties like shape
  45. Mercator- conformal b/c it accurately represents shape of landforms but not equal area b/c landforms are drastically distorted
  46. Equidistant- maintain distance but distort other properties
  47. Robinson- compromise projection b/c neither equal nor conformal; all are slightly distorted, none drastically
  48. Azimuthal projection-flat-plan, direction is accurate and great circles are evident
  49. Cognitive- (mental) drawn from memory, often reflect spatial perceptions of those who draw them
  50. Scale- refers to relationship between distance on map & actual real world measurement
  51. Scale of inquiry-scope of geographic analysis
  52. Categories of Maps
  53. Reference maps
  54. Thematic Maps
  55. Isoline thematic maps
  56. Chlorpleth Maps
  57. Proportional thematic maps
  58. Dot density maps
  59. Cartogram
  60. Geographic Technology & Data
  61. Geographic Information Systems (GIS)- computer program that stores data and produces maps through layering
  62. Remote sensing-collection of information from satellites
  63. Global Position Systems (GPS)- satellite driven remote sensing
  64. Primary v. Secondary Data- directly collected by geographer or data collected at an earlier time being used later
  65. Data Aggregation-size of geographic units presented on map
  66. Modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP) sometimes a source of error impacting spatial studies that uses data that’s been grouped
  67. Population
  68. Demography- study of human populations
  69. Population Distribution- pattern of people across Earth’s surface, unevenly distributed throughout history
  70. Clustered around bodies of water and arable land
  71. 75% of all population live on 5% of Earth’s surface
  72. Global population distribution
  73. 80% lives in poor, LDCs in Latin America, Asia, & Africa
  74. Largest concentration in East Asia (China, Japan, Taiwan, North & South Korea)
  75. Second largest in South Asia
  76. Third largest in Europe
  77. Population Density- the number of people in a particular area
  78. Arithmetic density-total number people divided by total land area
  79. Physiological density- number of people per unit of arable land
  80. Agricultural density- number of farmers per unit of arable land
  81. Population Equation
  82. Global demographic accounting equation- calculates global population change during an interval of time: P1=P0+B-D
  83. Sub-global demographic accounting equation-adds in immigration and emigration: P1-P0+B-D+I-E
  84. Overpopulation-when region’s population outgrows its carrying capacity
  85. Carrying capacity- number of people the area can sustain
  86. Infrastructure-support systems in a region including, housing, police, roads, education, food supplies, and health care
  87. Cohort-group of people that are same age
  88. Dependency Ratio-compares people not in workforce with those who are
  89. 15-64 considered nondependent
  90. Key Measurements of Fertility & Mortality
  91. Crude birth rate (CBR)- number of live births per 1000 per year
  92. Crude Death rate (CDR)- number of deaths per 1000 per year
  93. Rate of Natural Increase (RNI)-growth rate of population excluding immigration & emigration
  94. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)-number of infant deaths per 1000 live births per year
  95. Life expectancy-avg number of years to be live by person
  96. Fecundity- ability of a woman to conceive, generally ages 15-45
  97. General Fertility Rate (GFR)- number of births per 1000 women in their fecund years
  98. Total fertility rate (TFR)-predicted number of births a woman will have as she passes through her fecund years
  99. Population Growth and Decline over space and time
  100. 300 Earth has experienced dramatic increase in population
  101. 10k-12k years ago First Agricultural Revolution-domestication of crops
  102. 1700s Industrial Revolution diffused from England caused Second Agricultural Revolution (new technology/machinery)
  103. Theories of Population Growth
  104. Thomas Malthus-population growing exponentially but food supply growing at slower rate
  105. Karl Marx- problem isn’t population growth but unequal distribution of wages and resources
  106. Ester Boserup- believed overpopulation could be avoided by increasing number of subsistence farmers
  107. Population Policies
  108. Pro-natalist- (expansive) government to promote reproduction & bigger families (tax breaks for families)
  109. Anti-natalist- (restrictive) discourage reproduction (one-child policies)
  110. Population Predictions
  111. Low-growth scenario- Earth’s population will begin declining, 7.5 billion by 2050 & 5.1 billion by 2100
  112. High-growth scenario- global population of 11 billion by 2050 & 16 billion by 2100
  113. Epidemic v. Pandemic
  114. Pandemic disease- HIV/AIDS affects very large numbers at global level
  115. Epidemic disease- affects local regions
  116. Demographic Transition Model
  117. Migration- process of permanently moving from home region and crossing borders between counties, states, or countries
  118. Push & Pull factors-
  119. Push-negative influences that make a person want to move, high taxes, high crime rates, abusive gov’t
  120. Pull-positive influences that pull a person towards a particular place; good schools, affordable housing, clean parks
  121. Migration Streams- pathway from place of origin to a destination
  122. If place has more people coming than going they have net in-migration
  123. If place has more leaving than staying they have net out-migration
  124. Chain migration- develop because of information exchange
  125. Voluntary v. forced migration- migrant have option to move or are pushed from their land
  126. Major regions of dislocation & refugees: Sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East, Europe, & SE Asia
  127. Major Migrations over time:
  128. U.S has seen three major waves of immigration
  129. Colonial era, both voluntary & involuntary to New World
  130. 19th century most from Ireland & Germany
  131. In 1980s-90s Asian and Latin American immigrants
  132. Internal Migration-movement within a country
  133. Interregional-from one region to another
  134. Intraregional-moving within a region (city to suburb)
  135. U.S. shifted population: Great Migration during WWI, 1970s return to South; from Rustbelt in NE to Sunbelt in South as factories closed
  136. Predicting & explaining migration
  137. Migration selectivity-evaluation of how likely someone is to migrate based on personal, social, and economic factors
  138. Education is major facto-more educated make longer moves
  139. Ravenstein’s Migration laws: majority travel short distances, migrants traveling far move to cities, rural more likely to migrate than urban
  140. Gravity Model-estimates spatial interaction and movement between two places
  141. Zelinsky’s Model of Migration Transition-explains migration based on country’s stage in demographic model
  142. Cultural Patterns and Processes
  143. Concepts
  144. Cultural geography- study of people’s lifestyles, creations, and relationships to the Earth and supernatural; how and why culture is expressed
  145. Material components of culture- include tangible artifacts
  146. Non-material components of culture- thoughts and ideas of people such as religion and laws
  147. Cultural Landscape- physical imprint a culture makes on the environment
  148. Carl Sauer-20th century geographer championed study of cultural landscape
  149. Cultural ecology-study of human-environment interaction
  150. Sequent Occupancy-theory that place can be occupied by different groups of people and each group leaves its imprint from which the next group learns
  151. Geographic Theories explaining Human-environment Interaction
  152. Environmental determinism-theory developed as early as Greeks that argues human behavior is controlled by physical environment
  153. Possibilism-theory that developed as counterargument to environmental determinism; argues natural environment sets limits on set of choices available to people
  154. Cultural Determinism-theory that environment places no restrictions on humans whatsoever, only restrictions are those created by humans themselves
  155. Political Ecology- attempts to answer why human cultures interact with environments in the ways they do; asserts gov’t of region affects environment of region which affects choices available to people
  156. Layers of Culture
  157. Culture trait-single attribute of culture
  158. Culture complex-unique set of traits of combination of culture traits
  159. Culture regions- regions drawn around places/peoples with similarities in culture systems
  160. Regional identity-emotional attachment to group of people & places associated with culture region
  161. Culture realms-formed through fusing together of culture regions that share enough in common to be merged together
  162. Cultural Diffusion-material and nonmaterial human creations spreading across time and space
  163. Spatial diffusion-any phenomenon sucha s dieseas spreading across space
  164. Two categories of diffusion
  165. Expansion- spreads outward to new places while remaining strong in its hearth
  166. Stimulus-idea diffuses from hearth outward but idea is changed by new adopters
  167. Hierarchical-concept spreads from place or person of power
  168. Contagious- diffusion occurs when numerous places/people near hearth become adopters (or infected)
  169. Relocation-involves actual movement of original adopters from point of origin to a new place
  170. Migrant diffusion-innovation spreads, lasts short time
  171. Culture hearths-areas where innovations in culture began such as where agriculture, gov’t, and urbanization originated
  172. TorstenHagerstrand- theorized all innovation diffuse from hearths in stages; Diffusion S-Curve
  1. Cultural convergence v. divergence
  2. Convergence occurs when two cultures come into contact with one another and the weaker of the two adopts traits from the more dominant culture
  3. Divergence occurs when two cultures become increasingly different, often when one moves away from territory or group
  1. Ethnicity & Race
  2. Ethnicity-core component of cultural identity and relates to set of norms that people create and define “their group”
  3. Race-classification system of humans based on skin color and other physical characteristics
  4. Ethnic Conflict
  5. Social distance-measures how distant two ethnicities or social groups are from each other but not in spatial sense
  6. Ethnic cleansing- a race or ethnic group attempts to expel from a territory another race or ethnic group
  7. Genocide- killing of race or ethnic group by another race/ethnic group
  8. Gender
  9. Classification of biological and social differences between men & women
  10. Gender gap-differences in social, economic, and political power & opportunity between men & women
  11. Patterns related to gender gap: high maternal mortality rate- women in poor regions are 100-600 X more likely to die giving birth than women in wealthier countries, female infanticide rates- murder of female infants in regions where families want male children, dowry death- when bride is murdered by husband’s family b/c her father failed to pay dowry, women not given right to vote in most places until 20th century, gender imbalances-countries where men outnumber women
  12. Folk & Popular Culture
  13. Folk- limited to smaller region and smaller groups of people
  14. Isolated groups, long-lasting traits that haven’t changed much
  15. Spreads though relocation diffusion
  16. Popular- mass culture that diffuses rapidly
  17. Spreads through expansion diffusion
  18. Some believe pop culture threatens local or regional distinctiveness and cause cultural sameness
  1. Religion
  2. Fundamental part of human culture, is set of beliefs & activities that help humans celebrate & understand their place in the world
  3. Universalizing v. Ethnic Religions
  4. Universalizing have universal appeal & attract all people
  5. Branches, denominations, sects
  6. Ethnic religions attempt to appeal to one group in a specific place or ethnicity
  7. Monotheistic v. Polytheistic
  8. Monotheistic-Belief in one supreme being; Christianity, Islam, Judaism
  9. Polytheistic- belief in more than one supreme being
  10. Buddhism- world’s first universalizing religion, founded by Prince SiddarthaGuatama, 350 million people worldwide
  11. Christianity-second universalizing religion, an offshoot of Judaism
  12. Islam- third major universalizing religion, originated in Mecca through prophet Muhammad
  13. Language
  14. Culture trait, learned from one generation to another
  15. 2.5 millions years ago developed
  16. diffused through migration then divergence occurred
  17. Reverse reconstruction- process of tracking language diffusion
  18. Language tree
  19. 19 language families, each has own branches, branch has own groups, group has own language, language has own dialects
  20. Language related conflict
  21. Multilingual states-contain linguistic minorities, can lead to struggles over national identity and power
  22. Monolingual states-speakers of only one language, can’t exist well in globalized world
  23. Lingua franca- language used to facilitate trade among groups of different language speakers
  24. Place Names
  25. Toponyms-reflect cultural identity & impact cultural landscape
  26. Can give clues to origins of related cultures
  27. Political Organization of Space
  28. Study of political human political organization
  29. Three scales-supranational, national, and sub-national (local)
  30. Sovereignty-internationally recognized control of a place over the people and territory within its borders
  31. States-used to refer to countries
  32. Nations-refer to groups of people who share common culture and identify as cohesive group
  33. Multinational states v. nation-states- state or country that includes more than one nation within its borders (Soviet Union) v. a state with only one nation in its borders (Japan)
  34. Buffer state-independent country located between two larger countries that are in conflict, Russia & China have Mongolia as buffer
  35. Satellite states-countries controlled by more powerful state (Taiwan is to China)
  36. Shatterbelts-state or group of states that exist within sphere of competition between larger states and is often splintered culturally, economically, & politically (Eastern Europe post Cold War)
  37. Political Boundaries-
  38. Geometric-straight line don’t relate to culture or physical features
  39. Physical-run along natural features
  40. Cultural-divide according to religion or language
  41. Frontiers- regions where boundaries are underdeveloped and territory is unclear (Antarctica)
  42. Shapes of states