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Ap world-brown – lecture notes- chapter 4
1)Background
Classical Greece built on the legacy of earlier regional civilizations in the Middle East, Egypt, Crete, and Mycenae. Indo-European Greek-speaking invaders were assimilated. Internal warfare and new Indo-European invasions destroyed the early civilization, but Greek-speakers spread around the Aegean Sea. By 800 B.C.E. a new classical civilization began to emerge. Greek politics and culture flourished until 400 B.C.E. Then Alexander the Great formed a military empire and introduced the Hellenistic period, a time when Greek culture spread widely in the Middle East, North Africa, and southern Europe. The Greeks demonstrated new political and cultural capacities in philosophy and politics, and in scientific and mathematical advances. The Greek legacy influenced many later societies.
2)The Persian Empire: Parallel Power in the Middle East. The Persians developed different political and cultural values than the Greeks. They influenced many world historical currents and today's nation of Iran. About 550 B.C.E. Cyrus the Great established a Persian empire as successor to the Mesopotamian states of the past. The empire tolerated traditional cultures and Persians advanced iron technology. Religious leader Zoroaster revised Sumerian beliefs to produce a religion emphasizing the importance of choosing between the divine forces of good and evil; a last judgment decided the eternal fate of each person. Later Persian rulers expanded the empire and provided much of the Middle East with a long period of peace and prosperity. Although ultimately conquered by Alexander, Persian language and culture remained influential.
Cyrus the Great
3)The Political Character of Classical Greece. Greek civilization emerged in small communities incorporating the heritage of Crete (Minoan) and Mycenae. Invading Indo-Europeans contributed a polytheistic religion carried through oral traditions embodying societal cultural values. Another stimulation to Greek civilization came from a general revival of trade in the eastern Mediterranean spurred by the introduction of coined money (created by the Lydians). Increased wealth spurred population growth and social change in Greece that encouraged new political forms.
4)The Emergence of Greek Forms. The Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet to write their own language. The spread of literacy enhanced commercial exchanges and cultural life. The Iliadand the Odyssey were written down and provided a mythic foundation for Hellenic(not Hellenistic) culture. In architecture the Greeks developed distinctive forms based upon an oblong building framed by pillars. Sculpture moved to a more realistic portrayal of the human body, while decorated pottery depicted scenes of human activity.
5)The City-State as a Political Unit. After 800 B.C.E. government revolved around a city-state (polis), polities varying in size and embracing a city and its agricultural hinterland. Many city-states formed, but political unification did not occur. The city-states were ruled by landowningaristocrats descended from Indo-European warriors. They and free farmer citizens met to discuss political issues in councils, even when there were kings. After 700 B.C.E. the system of aristocratic control was challenged as a result of commercial expansion and the growth of specialized commercial agriculture. Small landholders suffered and a growing gulf emerged between the rich and poor. Some aristocratic oligarchies in purely agricultural regions, as in Sparta, remained unchallenged, but others faced steady pressure. By the 6th century B.C.E. urban commercial groups and dispossessed farmers sought reform. Tyrants won support by challenging aristocratic interests. Other reformers, like Solonof Athens, labored to develop new laws to regulate economic relationships. Additional cause for change came from the democratization of military service by qualified citizens. By 500 B.C.E. most city-states were based upon principles of loyalty to the public community rather than to an individual ruler. Widespread participation in public life by male citizens was common. Since each city-state had its own gods, religious rituals also supported involvement.
6)The Rise of Democracy in Athens. Athens took the lead in democratic development, but Solon's reforms did not resolve all societal tensions. Pisastratus ruled as a tyrant, but following his death the reformer Cleisthenes(508BC)reestablished a council elected by all citizens. Athens continued to depend upon a popular assembly of citizens as sovereign authority. Citizens formed the army and served as jurors. Most officials were chosen by lot and were responsible to the assembly. The Athenians did not follow today's democratic ideals. Many adults - women, slaves, and foreigners - were excluded from political rights, and aristocrats, as Pericles and Alcibiades, had excessive importance.
7)A Comparison of Greek and Chinese Political Styles. Greek political life emphasized individual participation, but in a decentralized system quite different from the single centralized Chinese state. Formal law was more important to the Greeks, while the Chinese stressed bureaucratic codes of hierarchy.
8)Greek Diplomacy and the Tensions of United Effort. Many city-states founded colonies along the coasts of the Mediterranean and Black Sea. They relieved population pressure, provided grain supplies, and served as markets for Greek products. The city-states acted together in a few activities. They cooperated in the Olympic games and recognized the oracle at Delphi. An important collaboration occurred when Greeks united and preserved independence by defeating a Persian Wars (invasion). After the wars Athens dominated other Greek city-states through an alliance, the Delian League. Athens gained valuable resources, but the new wealth caused political divisions and infighting.
Persian Wars
9)Athens versus Sparta. The growing power of a democratic, commercially active Athens led to competition with oligarchic, conservative, and militaristic Sparta. They fought from 431 to 404 B.C.E. in the Peloponnesian War. Athens, weakened by a disastrous plague and an unsuccessful invasion of Sicily, surrendered to Sparta in 404 B.C.E. The defeat marked the end of the dominance of the polis.
Peloponnesian Wars
10)The Hellenistic Period. Sparta(also weakened) failed to dominate Greece after its victory. The Peloponnesian War had destroyed any basis for Greek unity and weakened the major participants. A conquering northern state took control of Greece and expanded into the Middle East and Egypt. The short-lived empire of Alexander the Great greatly expanded the impact of Greek culture.
11)Macedonian Conquest. The northern kingdom of Macedon filled the power vacuum in Greece. The loosely organized, Greek-influenced state, was strengthened militarily during the rule of Philip II (359-336 B.C.E.). Phillip II invaded and conquered the divided Greek city-states by 338 B.C.E.
12)Alexander the Great. Philip's son, Alexander, invaded and defeated the Persian empire in campaigns between 334 and 331 B.C.E. He also took control of Egypt. Alexander pressed on into India but was halted when his army refused to go on. Alexander hoped to merge Greek and Asian traditions. He founded numerous cities, spread Greek officials widely, encouraged intermarriage with local women, and established centers of Greek scholarship. Alexander's unexpected death in 323 B.C.E. ended the dream of a multinational empire.
Alexander’s Empire
13)Later Hellenistic States. The new empire quickly fragmented into states run by former generals. City-states still existed, but politics centered on military empires. The three principal dynasties were the Ptolemies in Egypt, the Seleucids in Persia, and the Antigonids in Macedon and Greece. Many Greeks remained in the successor states as officials and merchants, and Greek culture spread widely to mix with other cultures and form a new intellectual framework for much of the civilized world. In northwestern India the kingdom of Bactria importantly mixed Greek and Indian themes.
14)Creativity in Greek and Hellenistic Culture. The genius of Greek civilization expressed itself more in culture than politics. Greek culture made lasting contributions to the Mediterranean world in art and philosophy and served as a key contribution to the larger Hellenistic world created by Alexander..
15)Religion, Philosophy, and Science. Unlike the Indians and Chinese, the Greeks did not create a major religion. They focused upon a pantheon of unruly gods and goddesses who interfered in human affairs. Both Greeks and Indians drew their religion from Indo-European origins, but the Greeks produced a more human-centered approach. Its lack of spiritual passion contributed to the development of alternative “mystery’ religions more satisfying to people’s needs. Since religion did not provide a basis for ethical thought, Greek thinkers worked to create a separate philosophical system. The effort to understand phenomena through rational observation became a hallmark of Greek and Hellenistic culture. Socrates urged consideration of secular criteria for moral decisions. Aristotle stressed the importance of moderation to balance political and religious instability. The Stoics stressed inner moral independence. Other philosophers attempted to define appropriate political structures. Plato proposed an ideal government where philosophers ruled. Most philosophers stressed practical, balanced systems incorporating democratic and oligarchic elements. A nonreligious philosophy encouraged emphasis on the powers of human thought. Socrates encouraged skepticism; Plato suggested reason could approach an understanding of eternal reality. In science the Greeks, unlike the Chinese, speculated about nature’s order, founding a lasting Western passion for seeking rationality in the universe. Pythagoras and Euclid contributed major achievements to geometry, while Galen’s contributions to anatomy were a standard for centuries.
16)Literature and the Arts. All arts received attention, but drama had a central role in Greek culture. The Greek division of drama into comedy and tragedy remains a Western tradition. Athenian dramatists Sophocles used tragedy to demonstrate the fragility of human virtues. Aristophanes did the same through comedy. Greek literature included a strong epic tradition, and formal historical writing emerged with Herodotus and Thucydides. In visual arts the Greeks emphasized architecture, ceramics, and realistic sculpture. Temples, markets, and public buildings had three building styles: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. All art was intended for public utilization: temples and markets were for daily use; dramas were public rituals for all citizens.
17)The Principles of Greek Culture. Cultural achievement was based on four principles. An emphasis on formal political theory reflected the special political atmosphere of Greece. Art and sculpture glorified human achievement. Drama and philosophy stressed the importance of human striving. The philosophical and scientific tradition emphasized the validity of logical constructs for understanding the natural world. There was, however, a large cultural gap between the elite and the masses.The Greeks were a class hierarchy
18)Hellenistic Culture during and after Alexander. The decline of the city-state produced significant changes. Older literary works were preserved and analyzed, but little new drama was produced. Historical writing flourished. In architecture more elaborate decorative motifs emerged; in art and sculpture old styles persisted. Hellenistic intellectuals developed new knowledge in science, and mathematics. Astronomical charts and geographical knowledge improved. Overall, Hellenistic thinkers left a considerable legacy in all fields for later eras.
19)In Depth: Defining Social History. Until recently historians awarded an undue emphasis to political and intellectual history. Social and economic history was given a secondary place. It is now recognized that the lives of ordinary men and women deserve a major place in the study of the past of all societies. The daily activities of the often silent masses are difficult, but not impossible, to reconstruct. To understand the past, and the present, historians must attempt to portray the lives of all segments of society. So-called ordinary people, after all, have made up the bulk of human society. The often-neglected role of women is an obvious example of the past insensitivity to the reality of human existence. The only way to understand how a society functions is to give proper attention to all of its members.
20)Patterns of Greek and Hellenistic Society. The standard features of an agricultural society, a large peasantry and a landowning aristocracy, were basic to Greek and Hellenistic society. Commerce, although often looked down upon, was vital. Patriarchal family values predominated, although there was more ambivalence about women than in classical China. Slavery was of major importance.
21)Economic and Social Structure. Economic and social structure in classical Greece resembled that of other civilizations where warlike invaders had settled down to agriculture. The aristocracy was based on land ownership and military service. Many independent farmers owned land and claimed political and social rights. Increasing commerce and urban growth then complicated social structure. Distinctive factors for the Greeks included an infertile, mountain environment making city-states dependent on trade. War and colonization allowed the frequent seizing of slaves, thus resulting in less attention being given to manufacturing technology. Aristocratic dominance in politics and society persisted. Merchants remained in an ambiguous position; their status was higher than in Confucian China, but lass firm than in India.
22)Rural Life and Agriculture. The majority of the population was rural, not urban. They maintained distinctive beliefs, such as fertility rituals. Even though free farmers played a vital role in early politics, much societal tension resulted from large landholder efforts to force them from their property. The problem was increased by the nature of Greek agriculture. Soil was unsuited for grain, the basic life staple. Farmers turned to crops, olives and grapes and feta, that gave a greater return. They required intensive capital investment and thus favored aristocratic landowners. Mediterranean agriculture became unusually market-oriented, spurring tendencies to import grain supplies and to develop export markets. Large-scale, commercial agriculture became dominant throughout the Hellenistic world. As a result peasants clustered in small towns, not the villages typical elsewhere.
23)Slavery and Production. Slavery, justified by Aristotle, was vital to a society and economy dominated by aristocrats devoted to political and cultural pursuits. Slaves, often acquired in war, served in almost all occupations. Many enjoyed considerable personal and economic independence, but the system clearly demonstrated the limited nature of Greek democracy.
24)Men, Women, and Social Divisions. Greek culture emphasized the husband/father in control of a tightly structured family. Women performed vital economic functions , especially in farming or artisan families, and powerful female personalities often were influential within households. Although women had some legal rights, both law and culture held them inferior. Female infanticide might occur in large families. Marriage was arranged by a father. Divorce was possible for men at will; women needed court procedure. Adultery was without penalty for men; women could be divorced. Women focused their lives on household duties. Upper class men consorted more often with lower-class women and male youths than with wives. In the Hellenistic period conditions for women improved, but they remained a subordinate group..
25)Conclusion: A Complex Legacy.The durability of classical Greek and Hellenistic culture came from the power of its cultural forms, settled peasant routine, and technological continuity. The Greeks, unlike the Chinese, did not develop enduring political forms. Their legacy was in the realm of ideas and examples, in the ideals of citizenship and the heritage of slavery. Art and philosophy made the most lasting contributions, particularly in intellectual circles. Ordinary people were less influenced.. Greece's legacy became a fundamental part of the Middle Eastern and Western heritage.
ROME
26)Background
When the Greek and Hellenistic worlds declined many their political, cultural, and economic traditions were carried on by the Romans in their own distinct society. Rome grew from a minor city-state to become the dominant factor in Mediterranean civilization. Its civilization included much of the Greek and Hellenistic sphere in the eastern Mediterranean and extended beyond it into Europe and North Africa. The Roman empire surpassed the political and commercial organization of the Greeks in durability and organization..
27)Rome as Heir to Classical Mediterranean Civilization. Roman and Greek societies had many shared elements, but each emphasized different factors. The Romans preserved, and modified, many features of Greek society while developing their own focus. They gave engineering and law more emphasis than philosophy and science. Through mixing old and new factors Rome created a new version of classical Mediterranean civilization. The greater Roman geographical extent spread that civilization to new regions in Europe and North Africa and served as a breeding ground for the development of Christianity.