Annotated Bibliography Scholarly Articles

Samantha Hubbard * Books

Annotated Bibliography ** Scholarly Articles

Madagascar

Colonial Era:

Country Studies. Library of Congress. “A Country Study: Madagascar”. August 1994.

This source provides a useful, yet brief overview of Madagascar’s history. Thestudy divides the history into fivesections: Pre-colonial Era (prior to 1894), Colonial Era (1894-1960), Independence, The first Republic and the Military Transition (1960-1975), The Second Republic (1975-1992), and The Third Republic (1993- ). The information within the Pre-colonial Era section describes the introduction of foreigners into the Malagasy society, the introduction of slavery (all before colonization), the development of power and rule by the dominant ethnic group, the Merina, and the relationship with Europe that suffered under Queen Ranavalona I (1828-61), flourished under her successor King Radama II (1861-63), and then was maintained by the following rulerKing Rainilaiarivony. The second section, Colonial Era (1894-1960) begins with the official French declaration of colonial rule in 1896. The source then moves immediately into nationalist, anti-colonial movements and therefore lacks information about French motives for colonization. This source does, however, provide good evidence of the Malagasy anti-colonial sentiments: the first movements beginning in 1913, the 1947 revolt and France’s response, and then the emergence of the two main Malagasy political parties in 1950. The remaining sections are found under the decolonization heading. This will be helpful in the research paper as to provide a basis from which to start further analysis.

Robinson, Bruce. “Madagascar Captured.” Bbc.co.uk. WW2 People’s War. May 1942.

This is a brief source that described Madagascar’s position during World War II, specifically during the German invasion of France and the creation of the French Vichy. According to Robinson, the colonies were allowed to choose which side to follow and Madagascar chose the French Vichy government. This made the allies nervous as they realized the potential for Japan to take advantage of Madagascar’s position in the Indian Ocean and use them to bomb Allied shipping boats. To prevent this, the Allied forces “simulated” invasion of Madagascar and bombed French Vichy government ships that were in port. There was a small encounter with the French Vichy, but the Allies emerged victorious and the French Vichy governor and troops drew back to the south of the island, making the Allies successful in preventing Madagascar from taking the opposition’s side. This is an interesting article as it describes a brief time in Madagascar’s colonial history when their colonizing authority lost legitimacy, which, it can be argued, was a fundamental factor in decolonization.

** Cooke, James J. “Madagascar and Zanzibar: A Case Study in African Colonial Friction.” African Studies Review. Vol. 13, No. 3, 435-443. December 1970.

In this article, Cooke focuses on the conflicts that arose between England and Francedue to the colonial territories, using Madagascar and Zanzibar as classic nineteenth century examples. France initially claimed Madagascar, and demanded large territorial sacrifices by the Malagasy rulers. The British did not acknowledge French presence as valid and insisted that the rulers refuse these land concessions to France. Although in 1890 an agreement was signed between France and Britain to end the conflict, both countries continued to interfere in colonial relationships. The French sent Catholic missionaries to the region, while the British sent Protestant missionaries. According to Cooke, the French Catholics wanted to wage war against the British Protestants in order to drive them from Madagascar (and Zanzibar). The French and British habitant of the colonies would report to their respective state of the offenses and surmounting tension in the area, and the state would respond with empty promises of improvement. Another French offense against Britain was implemented through tariffs. France put a tax much higher than any other nation on British imports into Madagascar. When native uprisings against French colonial powers in Madagascar gave England the opportunity to gain power in the island, they withdrew and refused to do anything that would harm France’s position in Madagascar. After France beat the nationalist uprisings down, they re-issued the high tariff on British imports and arrested several Frenchmen in Madagascar for giving aide to the Malagasy people during the uprising. Just as the conflict had reached a head, the French withdrew the tax and ended conflict in Madagascar and Zanzibar as they realized the upcoming conflicts with their holdings near the Nile, and they did not want anything to jeopardize their position with the Nile. According to Cooke, this conflict shows the European scramble for African land to colonize and the lack of restraint and balance of the Europeans, specifically the French and English. This article is interesting within the context of my research paper in that it shows weakness and uncertainty in a Europe that is usually pictured as unshakable. This article also raises a question of French legitimacy within Madagascar, as they, at one point, rely on England to restrain from invasion so they can conquer ‘their’ colony.

** Campbell, Gwyn. “The Structure of Trade in Madagascar, 1750-1810.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies. Vol. 26, No.1, 111-148. 1993.

In this article, Campbell discusses the status of trade pre-French conquest. She looks at the rise of the Merina empire, which dominated economically and politically from 1820s until 1895 as a small landlocked region in the middle of Madagascar. Campbell focuses on the time period from 1750-1810 so as to analyze the Merina empire’s rise to power and the role that the leader of the empire, Andrianampoinimerina played in the process. In the beginning of the nineteenth century, each region of the empire contained its own markets with some interaction with neighboring markets. The development of the plantation in neighboring islands created a market within Madagascar for slaves, which was the major stimulant to trade. Andrianampoinimerina played the role of organizer and regulation setter for the trade economy that developed. After a series of wars in 1790, a system of weights and measurements was developed which led to the development of an inter-island trade network. Regional specialization emerged out of this island trade economy. Goods such as cloth, piastres, and gunpowder were used as money. An interesting point that Campbell states is that this development of a market economy was a direct result from their strong agricultural base. The development could not be maintained given the position of Merina within Madagascar, therefore Merina began to combine their economic and political power in the early 1800s so as to establish the island empire that emerged in the 1820s. This article is relevant in that it shows the economic status of Madagascar pre-French conquest, and establishes that Africa, at least in Madagascar, did have a functioning economic and political system established prior to colonization.

Bureau of African Affairs. US Department of State. “Background Note: Madagascar.” January 2005.

Country Profiles. BBC News. “Country Profile: Madagascar.” 9 November 2004.

The World Factbook. CIA. “The World Factbook: Madagascar.” 10 February 2005.

Timelines. BBC News. “Timeline: Madagascar.” 12 November 2004.

These sources provide a recent, brief, and comprehensive outline of Madagascar. They offer general information about the people, the government, the economy, the media, and a plethora of statistics about Madagascar in each of these areas. These sources are useful in gathering basic information and providing a basis for further analysis.

* Fuglestad, Finn and Jarle Simensen, eds. “Norwegian Missions in African History Vol. 2: Madagascar.” Vol. 2. London: NorwegianUniversity Press, 1986.

This book focuses on the influence of Norwegian missionaries throughout Madagascar beginning in 1866. The authors dedicate two chapters to background information and then look at individual regions of Madagascar and role of the Norwegians in their history. The first chapter, The Malagasy Background I: The Early Phase, gives a succinct summary of Malagasy ethnicity, both historically as well as modernly. The chapter then moves into a detailed report of the pre-colonial Merina empire that maintained power in the island, including information on the trading economy as well as on the religious development under the Merina empire. The second chapter of the book, The Malagasy Background II: The Nineteenth Century, begins with a continued description of the end of the Merina empire and the initial contact with Europe, in the form of Britain. The result of this contact is a change in authority to King Radama I, and a strong movement toward paganism that included the persecution of Christians. After the death of the king, King Radama II, there was a time of social unrest and wars for power that caused the leader of one movement to turn to Christianity as a means to power. Christianity also played a role in the economic success of the late nineteenth century as they were so closely affiliated with the government. This source is useful in developing a thorough and clear sense of the pre-colonial years in Madagascar. As the book develops it narrows its focus to specific regions in Madagascar and the direct effect the Norwegian missionaries had in each region. This provides a good look into the political, economic, social and religious environment of individualized Malagasy regions pre-French colonial rule. This is useful information in understanding the situation into which the French entered in 1894.

Decolonization:

Country Studies. Library of Congress. “A Country Study: Madagascar”. August 1994.

The continuation of the five segments begins with Independence, the FirstRepublic, and the Military Transition (1960-75). This piece begins with a brief explanation of how Madagascar obtained independence, and how the first president, Tsiranana, signed fourteen agreements to maintain ties with France. There is a brief description of the corruption that came with Tsiranana’s government in the form incumbent favored actions that put his party above the other ethnic parties. The source goes on to describe opposition that arises in response to the corruption and the maintenance of French ties: the unsuccessful 1971 Monima party uprising, the 1972 unsuccessful student protests, and then the final violent uprising of a combination of forces that were successful in forcing Tsiranana to dissolve his government and give power and control to the National Military. This ended the FirstRepublic in 1972. Continued economic stagnation and uprisings led to a deeper divide among ethnic/political parties. Finally, a unifying leader emerged that would initiate the desired “revolution from above”: Ratsiraka, under the ruling body of the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC). The section, the SecondRepublic (1975-92), began with the election of Ratsiraka into a seven year term as president on December 21, 1975. Ratsiraka’s presidency focused on implementing a new Malagasy government as it was described in the “Red Book”. This meant a “new society” based on the “five pillars of the revolution”, a focus on a new foreign policy of detachment with the West, a decentralized domestic government, and strong economic development based on careful planning. In March of 1976 the Vanguard of the Malagasy Revolution (Arema) became the government’s party and Ratsiraka was named the secretary general. This party was one of the six parties that formed in a coalition that unified under the National Front for the Dense of the Revolution (FNDR). But after only three years of peaceful rule, policies of centralization of dominant economic sectors uprising and opposition began, and this led to a more authoritarian rule by Ratsiraka. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) successfully pressured Ratsiraka to open the Malagasy economy in order to obtain the economic assistance it offered. Enemies of Ratsiraka saw this as a rejection of the “scientific socialism” to which he had been committed. Ratsiraka’s popularity declined dramatically and he was accused of an unfair election in 1989. This resulted in a peaceful march of 400,000 people on the President’s Palace in August of 1991. The Presidential Guard opened fire on the citizens and a leadership catastrophe occurred. Ratsiraka’s response was to democratize including a rewritten constitution as well as free multiparty elections. The result of those elections was Albert Zafy, the main leader of the opposition forces, a member of the côtier party (coastal party) and the first president of the ThirdRepublic. In August of 1992 a new constitution was approved by 75% of those who voted in the national referendum. On February 10, 1993 Zafy beat Ratsiraka with a 67% popular vote and became the next president of Madagascar and as the leader of the Comité des Forces Vives (Forces Vives) coalition party consisting of sixteen other parties. The party and Zafy have experienced problems with the IMF as they require reforms that are of no direct benefit to the Malagasy citizens as well as using inexperienced political institutions to resolve the multitude of problems facing the country. This information will be useful in the paper in that it contains historical background information that can be used to make further connections and comparisons.

Bureau of African Affairs. US Department of State. “Background Note: Madagascar.” January 2005.

Country Profiles. BBC News. “Country Profile: Madagascar.” 9 November 2004.

The World Factbook. CIA. “The World Factbook: Madagascar.” 10 February 2005.

Timelines. BBC News. “Timeline: Madagascar.” 12 November 2004.

** Logan, Rayford W. “Education in Former French West and Equatorial Africa and Madagascar.” The Journal of Negro Education. Vol. 30, No. 3. 1961.

Loganfocuses on the education problem that faced the French colonies after decolonization, but he also mentions other problem areas that ex-colonies experienced in their decolonization period. He sites three main reasons for the educational deficiency that ex-French colonies found themselves in: 1) the short duration of stay of France within their colonies (the longest being eight years in Senegal), 2) the premature desertion of the French policy of “assimilation” that left only a small number of Africans actually “civilized”, and 3) a period of decolonization/autonomous rule that did not last long enough for Africa to learn how to be independent. Logan goes on to mention that the extremely diverse people that were left behind had different tribes and dialects of Malagasy. Therefore communication was primarily French as it was the universal languge. Africans were forced to communicate in French which, although it did facilitate unity and growth, it also promoted class divisions and ‘elitism’. Logan states that within Africa, aside from the aforementioned problems as a result of colonization, education also suffered due to environmental issues (rainstorms, moths, mildew), disease (intestinal diseases), social (value of leisure and comfort), financial (without and funding), and philosophical issues (the only teachers available were French, therefore French philosophy was taught). This source provides good examples, with education as a focus, of the struggles and conditions that were facing Madagascar post-French colonialism.

Economic Development:

Bureau of African Affairs. US Department of State. “Background Note: Madagascar.” January 2005.

Country Profiles. BBC News. “Country Profile: Madagascar.” 9 November 2004.

The World Factbook. CIA. “The World Factbook: Madagascar.” 10 February 2005.

Timelines. BBC News. “Timeline: Madagascar.” 12 November 2004.

Country Studies. Library of Congress. “A Country Study: Madagascar”. August 1994.

The Country Study of Madagascar divides the economic sector of Madagascar into nine areas: Government Policy and Intervention, Structural Adjustment, National Accounts and Budget, Balance of Payments and Debt, Traditional Agriculture, Agricultural Production, Industrial Development, Foreign Trade, and Transportation and Telecommunications. As this source is of 1994, it provides a limited look into the contemporary Malagasy economic situation. In 1994, the President Zafy announced the economy as his focus and set out five major aims for agricultural policy, such as the improvement of existing crop production and the development of new export products. The IMF and World Bank (WB) have been helpful in loaning Madagascar millions of dollars in structural and adjustment funds. This monetary funding came with conditions such as the devaluation of the Malagasy franc and macroeconomic stability. The latter condition, combined with several others, although it was economically beneficial, was politically destructive for Zafy’s presidency. As of November 1993 the external debit loomed at US$4 billion, with an outstanding initial debt of US$295 million and a US$625 million debt as rescheduled. Agriculture is Madagascar’s main source of revenue providing the country with 80% of its exports, employing 80% of the labor force, and containing 33% of GDP in 1993. Industry within Madagascar improved by a small 1.1% from 1987-1991 and in 1993 constituted 13% of the GDP with the major sectors falling in food-processing, mining, and energy. In 1992, 81.1% of Madagascar’s foreign trade sector was located within the West with four main trading partners: France, United States, Germany, and Japan, consecutively. This source offers a strong general background in Malagasy economy during the last decade of the twentieth century, however it lacks great detail in any of the nine subjects. This will be useful in the research paper as background information and a point from which to further investigation. These sources, especially the section on structural adjustment, will be very helpful in determining the economic situation of post-colonial Madagascar.