Angola: five centuries of conflict
Ethnicity:
Angolan Kongo, considered to be privileged because the ancient capital of the Kingdom was in Angola. Also, Kongo region had the only centralized monarchy in Angola. For two of the five centuries of conflict, the Kongo Kingdom was unified and powerful. Kongo people in Angola fought as subjects of this kingdom (p.41-42. ) Social organization is based on female descent.
Economy of the north (Kongo): three principle crops: cassava, coffee (most important economic fact from 1920-1960), and cotton (for Portuguese textile industry). Because coffee was so profitable, a lot of Portuguese moved to the north to grow it (as a result these crops were primarily grown on European plantations).
Kimbundu (rice, coffee) group is not nearly as cohesive as Kongo. Portuguese influence. Two language dialects (Ambaca (for Ambaquistas who live near Malange) and Luanda (for Catetenses who live in Luanda).) Ambaquistas proud of their association with Portuguese. Ambaca people are called mundele, which basically means a white person. Kimbundu produced first Angolan written literature.
Ovimbundu (villagers and traders, most populous and homogenous group.) The most important social unit was a village. Adapted well to portuguese civilization, occupied important position in Portuguese occupation of Angola.
Economy of the center (Umbundu) – Corn by Locals and Sisal by Europeans.
Portuguese in Angola – concentrated at the coast (cities of Luanda, Lobito, Benguela, and Mocamedes). Most of the whites in Angola were soldiers or exiled criminals (degredados), very few women present. Agricultural penal colonies. Most of the Portuguese left after the declaration of independence in Angola (‘75)
Mestizos – spread because of one to ten ratio btw white men and women in Angola – after independence became powerful business owners because they filled the space left by the departing Portuguese settlers (paper, p. 107).
Descendants of Angolan laborers who worked in Portuguese plantations in the island of Sao Tome – after independence have controlled political power in Angola. President dos Santos, for example, was born in Sao Tome (paper, p.107)
Assimilados - During Portuguese colonial rule, which lasted from 1920-60, the only way to escape forced labor and taxation was through becoming an assimilado. You could do it though transitioning from native to civilized person. By 1950, fewer than one percent of Angolans were able to do so.
Some History:
First to make contact with Portuguese were Kongo. King Manuel I and King Mani-Kongo Nzinga Mbemba (aka King Alfonso) were apparently best buddies and were called brother kings. That was in the beginning of sixteenth century. King of Ngola, seeing how beneficial this relationship is, approached Alfonso and asked him to get in touch with Portugal for him. Slave trade was big. Kimbundu people were the slaves and the intermediaries in furnishing slaves.
1575 marks the beginning of century of military conquest – to subdue the kingdom of Ndongo.
Angola was biggest supplier of slaves. Over four centuries of conflict Angola supplied 30% of slaves. (1500-1850.) Different Kingdoms competed over control of slave trading routs.
Chapter four: Portugal was forced to give up slave trade in 1836. Angola strated trading ivory, beeswax, and rubber – which turned out producing greater revenues than slaves.
Rubber was main export for Angola from 1874-1916. The rubber trade changed the agricultural pattern in the central highlands. The large caravans requires a greater supply of food. The Umbundu changed from seasonal subsistence agriculture to intensive, cash or barter cultivation.
Bailundo War of 1902:
Lasted four months, killed 2000 people. Portugal’s complete domination of the most populous region in Angola. Ovimbundu hostilities twd Portuguese because of military occupation, flood of white poor settlers, and sudden drop in rubber prices. Additionally, Ovimbundu were outraged over 1878 general regulations for contract labor, which sent labor to Sao Tome and Principe. On average 3,000 laborers per year, from the period of 1916-1920 – these Sao Tome laborers would control the inner-most center of political power in Angola today (paper, p.107)
Instruments of integration of Angolans that Portugal used – administration, transportation, communications, religion, and education (through catholic and protestant missions) – did not serve its objective. Instead, they contributed to creation of Angolan nationalism.
History of nationalist movements:
The MPLA and UPA, created in mid-fifties, were the first two movements to mobilize people into effective anti-colonial movements.
MPLA appealed to urban, assimilado-mestizo community and developed an ideology shaped by Marxism. UPA, was led by members of families that belonged to traditional power structure in the Kongo kingdom.
Feb. 1961 – riots on prisons, to free political dissidents, by Angolans. MPLA took credit for these attacks.
March’61, UPA-organized rebellion in the north. Related to expansion of European-owned coffee plantations.
This latter event triggered a significant increase of Portuguese military in the region (from 9,000 to 50,000, in the period of ’61-‘65). Also, more schools and more health services.
Strategic Hamlets in the North – 130-150 hamlets, 2000 people each (p.185) A lot of northerners fled to Congo btw ’61-65
In 1961, Portuguese gvt also started implementing educational and social reforms. There was no more civilized v non-civilized, there was no more leaving education for religious missions, there was also no more forced labor.
In the beginning of 60es, FNLA (UPA plus another northern movement PDA) attempted to become national party. Savimbi, who is Umbundu, for example, became a very influential player. They even formed Angolan government in exile, GRAE (with capital in Kinshasa), which was recognized by OAU.
Soon, however, Savimbi and other Umbundu became discouraged with FNLA and resigned from the GRAE.
In 1964, MPLA started gaining strength again, forming its operational base in Congo Brazzaville and receiving support and training from USSR and Cuba.
1966, UNITA found by Jonas Savimbi. Attracted Angolans in exile, Western-educated students, and pretty much everyone else who got disaffected with MPLA (Agostinho Neto) and FNLA (Holden Roberto). In his search for constituency, Savimbi emphasized that FNLA is predominantly Bakongo and supported by western forces, whereas MPLA is predominantly Kimbundu and supported by communist nations.
April 1965, Salazar-Caetano government opened Angola for foreign capital. 1966 oil found in the waters off the Cabinda enclave. Between ’67 at ’72, production of petroleum increased ten-fold. Production of minerals, such as ore and diamonds, also escalated. The only part of the economy that did not grow btw ’65-’75 was the subsistence sector.
It would be an oversimplification to suggest that particular foreign powers were given backing to particular liberation movements in Angola. All three parties were lobbying for support from anyone they could find. Interestingly, first foreign power to send funds to UNITA was China. Also, MPLA was working hard to avoid stigma of being supported only by Communist countries.
After Portugal agreed to let Angola become independent, however, foreign power support became more decisive and clear. Soviet Union was clearly supporting MPLA (equipment especially) and Cuba was providing military training for them (it also sent 10,000 of its own troops on the groupnd.) Europe and Zaire were helping out FNLA and the US and South Africa were on the side of UNITA. It is important to mention, however, that after Vietnam it became were difficult for the United States to be overt and firm in its involvement in domestic politics of other nations. Same goes for European countries. On Feb.11, 1976, when MPLA forces captured Huambo, Ford signed a bill prohibiting further US aid to Angola.
The Nakuru agreement (June 1975,) Transitional government outlined the problems it thought it was facing. Among them, arms race, the lack of political tolerance, the existence of zones of influence, arming of civilian population and presence of foreign elements.
In july, however, the MPLA moved to establish complete control of its zone – Lunda-Malange, clearing military and political personell of FNLA out of the area. It then proceeded with pushing south, against UNITA. At that time FNLA and UNITA were united fighting against common enemy. By the time of official independence on Nov. 11, MPLA had a full control of the capital and as a result of all governmental positions. By Feb, it achieved victories in Uige and Huambo and solidified its control.