Androgynya Psychological, As Distinct from a Biological, Sex-Type. Androgynous People Tend

Glossary

Chapter 1

androgynyA psychological, as distinct from a biological, sex-type. Androgynous people tend to identify with and enact qualities socially ascribed both to women and to men.

communicationA dynamic, systemic process in which meanings are created and reflected in and through humans’ interactions with symbols.

content level of meaningThe literal meaning of communication. Content-level meanings are the formal, or denotative, meanings of messages.

cultureThe structures and practices, especially those relating to communication, through which a particular social order is produced and reproduced by legitimizing certain values, expectations, meanings, and patterns of behavior.

essentializingThe reduction of a phenomenon to its essential characteristics, which are generally presumed to be innate or unchangeable. To essentialize the sexes is to imply that all women are alike in basic respects, that all men are alike in basic respects, and that the two sexes are distinct from each other because of fundamental, essential qualities.

genderA social, symbolic construction that expresses the meanings a society confers on biological sex. Gender varies across cultures, over time within any given society, and in relation to the other gender.

hermaphroditeA person whose internal and external genitalia are inconsistent.

intersexedHaving both male and female biological sexual characteristics.

patriarchalOf or pertaining to patriarchy, “rule by the fathers.” The term patriarchygenerally refers to systems of ideology, social structures, and practices, created by men, that reflect the values, priorities, and views of men as a group.

relationship level of meaningThe nonliteral meaning of communication. Expresses how a speaker sees the relationship between self and other. May provide cues about how to interpret the literal meaning of a message, for instance, as a joke.

sexA personal quality determined by biological and genetic characteristics. Male, female, man,and womanindicate sex.

Chapter 2

biological theoryThe theory that biological characteristics of the sexes are the basis of gender differences in thinking, communicating, feeling, and other functions.

cognitive development theoryA developmental theory according to which children participate in defining their genders by acting on internal motivations to be competent, which in turn lead them to seek out gender models that help them to sculpt their own femininity or masculinity.

gender constancyA person’s understanding, which usually develops by 3 years of age, that her or his sex is relatively fixed and unchanging.

psychodynamic theoryThe theory that family relationships, especially between mother and child during the formative years of life, have a pivotal and continuing impact on the development of self, particularly gender identity.

roleSocial definitions of expected behaviors and the values associated with them; internalized by individuals in the process of socialization.

social learning theoryTheory that individuals learn to be masculine and feminine (among other things) by observing and imitating others and by reacting to the rewards and punishments others give in response to imitative behaviors.

standpoint theoryA theory that focuses on the influence of gender, race, class, and other social categories on circumstances of people’s lives, especially their social positions and the kinds of experiences fostered within those positions. According to standpoint theory, a person’s standpoint (social location) shapes his or her understanding and behavior.

symbolic interactionismThe theory that individuals develop self-identity and an understanding of social life, values, and codes of conduct through communicative interactions with others in a society.

theoryA way to describe, explain, and predict relationships among phenomena.

Chapter 3

antifeminismA movement opposing any measures that advance women’s equality, status, rights, or opportunities; also called the backlash against feminism.

antisuffrage movementA movement that aimed to prevent women from gaining the right to vote in the United States. Opposition to women’s suffrage was evident as early as 1848 but had become formalized in organizations by 1911.

backlashA countermovement that seeks to repudiate and contain feminism by arguing two contradictory claims: (1) that women have never had it so good, so there is no longer any need for feminism; and (2) that feminism has caused serious problems in women’s lives and family relationships. Also called antifeminism.

cultural feminismThe viewpoint that women and men differ in fundamental ways, including biology, and that, in general, women and men have distinct standpoints that foster different experiences, perspectives, skills, and knowledge (for instance, nurturance in women and independence in men).

ecofeminismA movement that integrates the intellectual and political bases of feminist theorizing with ecological philosophy. The specific oppression of women is seen as a particular instance of a larger ideology that esteems violence and domination of women, children, animals, and the earth.

lesbian feministsFeminists whose sexual preference is women, who define themselves as woman identified, and who are committed to fighting for legal rights for all woman-identified women.

liberal feminismA form of feminism that maintains that women and men are alike in important respects and that women should have the same economic, political, professional, and civic opportunities and rights as men. NOW (the National Organization for Women) is the best-known organization representing liberal feminism.

Million Woman MarchA grassroots gathering of African American women launched in Philadelphia in 1997 to celebrate and foster solidarity among black women.

multiracial feminismA branch of the women’s movement that is concerned with race and the racial oppression of women.

power feminismA movement that emerged in the 1990s as a reaction to feminist emphasis on women’s oppression. Urges women to take the power that is theirs and to reject seeing themselves as victims of men or society.

radical feminismA branch of feminism that grew out of New Left politics and demanded the same attention to women’s oppression that New Left organizations gave to racial oppression and other ideological issues. Radical feminists pioneered revolutionary communication techniques such as consciousness raising, leaderless group discussion, and guerrilla theater.

revaloristsFeminists who focus on valuing traditionally feminine skills, activities, and perspectives and their contributions to personal, interpersonal, and cultural life.

separatistsFeminist groups who believe that, because patriarchal culture cannot be changed or reformed, women who find it oppressive must create and live in their own women-centered communities separate from the larger culture.

third-wave feminismAn emergent movement asserting that feminism for the current era is not just an extension of second-wave feminism. Aims (1) to be inclusive of diverse peoples; (2) to use personal life and personal action for political impact; and (3) to work to build coalitions with other groups that struggle against oppression.

womanistsA group of women who define their identities and goals as reflecting both race and gender oppression. The womanist movement arose out of dissatisfaction with mainstream feminism’s focus on white, middle-class women and their interests.

women’s rights movementFrom the mid-1800s to the 1920s, a movement that focused on gaining basic rights for women, such as the rights to vote, to pursue higher education, and to enter professions.

Chapter 4

father hungerFrom the mythopoetic men’s movement, men’s yearning to be close to other men and to build deep, enduring bonds with them; based on the mythopoetic belief that most young boys have distant relationships with the primary man in their lives—the father—and that the hunger for meaningful contact with men, of which they were deprived in youth, continues throughout life.

Fathers 4 JusticeA British fathers’ rights group that relies on the two rhetorical strategies of humor and dramatic stunts to raise public awareness about the custody rights of separated and divorced fathers.

Free MenA branch of the men’s movement that seeks to restore the traditional image of men by celebrating and encouraging the qualities of competitiveness, independence, and ruggedness in men.

male feministsMen who believe that women and men are alike in important respects and that the sexes should enjoy the same privileges, rights, opportunities, and status in society. Male feminists join liberal women feminists in fighting for equitable treatment of women. In addition, many male feminists seek to rid themselves of what they regard as toxic masculinity promoted in men by socialization, and to develop sensitivities more typically inculcated in women. Also called profeminist men.

masculinistA category of men’s movement that sees men as oppressed and seeks to preserve men’s freedom from women and femininization.

men’s rights activistsMembers of a men’s movement the goal of which is to restore traditional roles for men and women and, with that, the privileges men have historically enjoyed.

Mentors in Violence Prevention (MVP).A male antiviolence program that educates men about socialization that links masculinity to violence and aggression; motivates men to reject violence in themselves and other men.

Million Man MarchA branch of the men’s movement that began with a march in Washington, D.C., in 1995, in which black men atoned for sins and committed themselves to spiritual transformation and political action. Annual marches were also held in subsequent years.

mythopoetic movementA branch of the men’s movement headed by poet Robert Bly and active in the 1990s. Mythopoetics believe that men need to rediscover their distinctively masculine modes of feeling, which they regard as rooted largely in myth.

NOMAS (National Organization for Men Against Sexism)An activist men’s organization that promotes personal, political, and social changes that foster equality of men and women and gay and straight people through workshops and informal group discussions, public speaking, educational outreach programs, and enactment of traitorous identities.

profeministSee male feminists.

Promise KeepersBegun in 1990, a Christian branch of the men’s movement that calls men together to pray and commit to Christ-centered living.

traitorous identityA group member’s criticism of particular attitudes and actions—for example, sexist jokes—that are accepted and normative within the group.

White Ribbon Campaign (WRC).An international group of men who work to end men’s violence against women.

Chapter 5

male generic languageWords and phrases that are claimed to refer to both women and men yet are denotatively masculine; for example, the word man used to refer to all human beings.

matriarchalOf or pertaining to matriarchy, “rule by the mothers.” The term matriarchyis generally used to refer to systems of ideology, social structures, and practices that are created by women and reflect the values, priorities, and views of women as a group.

minimal response cuesNominal indicators of listening, or attending. “Um” and “yeah” are minimal response cues.

polarized thinkingConceiving things in terms of opposites, e.g., good or bad, right or wrong.

speech communityA group of people who share assumptions regarding how, when, and why to communicate and how to interpret others’ communication.

spotlightingHighlighting a person’s sex rather than other, more relevant characteristics; for example, the headline “Woman Elected Mayor.”

stereotypeA broad generalization about an entire class of phenomena, based on some knowledge of limited aspects of certain members of the class.

Chapter 6

artifactA personal object that influences how we see ourselves and how we express our identities.

hapticsTouch as a form of nonverbal communication.

nonverbal communicationAll elements of communication other than words themselves. Estimated to carry 65% to 93% of the total meaning of communication; includes visual, vocal, environmental, and physical aspects of interaction.

paralanguageVocal cues that accompany verbal communication, such as accent, volume, and inflection.

powerDimension of relationship-level meaning that expresses the degree to which a person is equal to, dominant over, or deferential to others.

kinesicsFacial and body movements; one type of nonverbal communication.

likingThe dimension of relationship-level meaning that expresses affection or lack of affection for another.

proxemicsSpace and the human use of space, including personal territories.

responsivenessThe dimension of relationship-level meaning that expresses attentiveness to others and interest in what they say and do.

territorialityAn aspect of proxemics; the sense of personal space that one does not want others to invade.

Chapter 7

ego boundaryPsychologically, the point at which an individual stops and the rest of the world begins; an individual’s sense of the line between herself or himself and others. Ego boundaries range from permeable (a sense of self that includes others and their issues, problems, and so on) to rigid (a sense of self as completely distinct from others).

monitoringThe process of observing and regulating our own attitudes and behaviors, which is possible because humans can reflect on themselves from others’ perspectives (self-as-object).

self-as-objectThe ability to reflect on the self from the standpoint of others. Because humans are able to take others’ perspectives, their views of self are necessarily social.

Chapter 8

alternate paths modelA relationship theory according to which masculine and feminine ways of creating and expressing closeness are viewed as different from each other and equally valid.

male deficit modelA relationship theory according to which men are deficient in forming and participating in close relationships; holds that most men’s ways of experiencing and expressing closeness are not simply different from, but inferior to, those of women.

personal relationshipsConnections in which partners are interdependent, consider each other irreplaceable, and are strongly and specifically connected to each other as unique individuals.

psychological responsibilityThe responsibility to remember, plan, think ahead, organize, and so forth. In most heterosexual relationships, even when physical labor is divided between partners, women assume greater psychological responsibility for the home and children.

second shiftThe work of homemaking and child care performed by a member of a dual-worker family after and in addition to that person’s job in the paid labor force.

Chapter 9

culture of romanceThe notion prevalent among today’s youth that success, for women, lies in attracting men rather than in pursuing ambitious careers.

effortless perfectionThe pressure felt by many women students at colleges to be beautiful, fit, popular, smart, and accomplished, all without visible effort.

hidden curriculumIn educational institutions, the organization, content, and teaching styles that reflect gender stereotypes and sustain gender inequities by marginalizing and devaluing female and minority students.

invisible hand discriminationThe inadvertent application, in discriminatory fashion, of policies that are not inherently biased.

Title IXThe section of the Educational Amendment of 1972 that makes it illegal for schools that accept federal funds to discriminate on the basis of sex.

Chapter 10

affirmative actionCollective term for policies that go beyond equal opportunity laws to redress discrimination. Assumes that historical patterns of discrimination against groups of people justify the preferential treatment of members of those groups; focuses on results, not on the intent of efforts to redress inequities; and attempts to increase the number of qualified members of minorities in education and the workplace, commensurate with their availability.