American Worker

TOEFL test, February 2010

Reading Set 1

American worker

In recent years the American workforce has witnessed a diminishing degree of trust in the commitment of employers to its long-term well being. Company executives lay off workers, putting the demands of shareholders above the needs of the employees who form the backbone of their operations. Debacles such as the bankruptcy of Enron in October 2001 brutally remind us that even the purported stability promised by pensions and stock options is often illusory. The era of globalization has pitted American companies in direct competition with businesses in other parts of the world where labor laws are considerably more lax. Many companies have begun outsourcing their labor and building plants to countries where they are unencumbered by minimum-wage laws and fair-hiring practices. As a result, the covenant between employer and employee in American companies has been broken, and workers who once felt confident that they could hold a good job throughout their working lives and retire comfortably when they come of age are soberly rethinking their plans.

We hear sentimental lamentations about the “good old days,” and a longing for a resurgence of manufacturing jobs providing a family wage, one that enables a man to support a stay-at-home wife and mother, and raise a brood of children with all the conveniences of modern life. But was there ever really such a deep commitment among employers to the well being of their employees? Except for a relatively brief stint during the twentieth century, those good old days of American labor were largely a myth. The idea of a family wage was a rallying cry for the labor union during the early years of the century, as workers came together to resist the unconscionable conditions and low wages that they experienced in the workplace. The clout of powerful, consolidated management, and a glut of workers fueled by brisk European immigration--especially from Italy, Ireland, and Eastern Europe--created a work environment where wages were low and recourse was minimal. The growth of powerful monopolies with formidable political clout, such as US Steel, put daunting obstacles in the path of the emerging labor movement, and the growing population of immigrant workers accustomed to subsistence wages put downward pressure on the pay scale.

Ironically, some of the best wages of the day were paid by the Ford Company, which was categorically opposed to unionization. Henry Ford, the company’s founder, took the practical approach of gambling on the supposition that, if his workers were well paid, they would be able to buy his cars. In 1914 he took the unprecedented step of doubling his workers’ wages to the unheard of level of five dollars a day, and his company thrived. Not only were his workers now able to buy cars, but they had reason to stay with the company, saving the business the considerable expense of employee turnover. In fact, when Ford instituted his new wage scale, qualified workers flocked to his company from all over the country, and as a result he was able to build a stable, qualified work force.

Ford’s philosophy and his success exemplify the contradiction that has plagued the American worker for more than a hundred years On the one hand, there need to be safeguards in place to prevent the worst kinds of employer abuses, such as the cruelly long work days and unconscionably low wages that were typical before the passage of early labor laws between 1912 and 1918. On the other hand, some of the most innovative developments in the history of American labor have come not from legislation or union pressure, but from the innovative actions of forward thinking entrepreneurs who grasp the connection between a friendly work environment, a motivated workforce, and a profitable company. Labor laws are necessary to prevent abuses that are detrimental to the health and well being of the workers who are exploited, as well as the society that must care for them when they are poor and sick. But, ultimately, the most advantageous working conditions have to come from holistically minded business owners who truly understand that treating their workers with respect and paying them fairly is a smart business policy.

1. The wordworkforce in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) company

(B) union

(D) public

2. The word their in the passage refers to

(A) executives *

(B) workers

(D) shareholders

3. The word outsourcing in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A)purchasing on credit

(B)changing locations

(C)loaning money to others

(D)contracting with outside suppliers *

4. What does the author imply in paragraph 1 about American employers?

(A)They have mistreated their employees. *

(B)They violated an international agreement.

(C)They have not changed much recently.

(D)They are committed to employee well being.

5. The word unconscionableinparagraph 2 is closest in meaning to

(A)impartial

(B)unscrupulous *

(C)indignant

(D)dirty

6. Which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

(A)Immigrants from Ireland, Italy and other European countries were willing to work in harsh conditions for very low wages.

(B)Management clout led to a rush of immigrants from Italy, Ireland, and Eastern Europe, creating a congenital work atmosphere.

(C)Strong management and a surplus of workers, particularly Europeans, combined to produce low salaries and labor oppression. *

(D)Management consolidation, in conjunction with European immigration, led to a work environment with high wages and maximum recourse.

7. Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage.

"There is one rule for the industrialist and that is: Make the best quality of goods possible at the lowest cost possible, paying the highest wages possible," Ford said.

Where would this sentence best fit?

Answer:

8. According to paragraph 3, what is true of Henry Ford?

(A)He embraced unionization.

(B)His company floundered.

(C)He doubled employee salaries. *

(D) Heloved to gamble.

9. What happened after Ford doubled workers' wages?

(A) Business improved. *

(B)Car sales declined.

(C)The workers unionized.

(D)He sold the company.

10. The word detrimental in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) excessive

(B)germane

(C)empowering

(D)damaging *

11. Which of the following is mentioned in paragraph 4 as an example of employer abuse?

(A) lack of rests

(B)long work days *

(C)unsanitary conditions

(D)beatings

12. Who does the author credit for innovative labor developments?

(A) unions

(B) government

(C)entrepreneurs *

(D)media

13. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below.Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

In recent years there has been a rift between American employees and their workers.

(A)Scandals involving executives of major companies, such as Enron, are eroding employees' trust in their employers. *

(B)A key change in the American workforce happened in the 1970s, when millions of women began going to work.

(C)In 1914, Henry Ford doubled the wages of his workers, and his automobile company subsequently thrived.

(D)Though many employees long for the "good old days," the fact is that US workers have always struggled for their rights. *

(E) A series of labor laws passed between 1912 and 1918 began to address some of the worst employer abuses.

(F) While some government regulation is necessary, it is primarily the employers' responsibility to create a good work environment. *

Reading set 2

Blogs

To the savvy computer user, the term blog is an everyday part of speech. A revolutionary, relatively new communication medium, blogs are now used by proud mothers who want to share pictures of their bundle of joy with the world, as well as by multi-million dollar companies as a means to attract visitors and increase sales. The history of blogging is short, but quite intriguing nevertheless.Blog is a term that first began being used in 1999, five years after a college student created Links.net, a site that is now widely regarded as the first blog ever to appear on the Internet. In 1997, a blogger – at that time known as a diarist – invented the term Weblog. Two years later, in April of 1999, a programmer by the name of Peter Merholz removed the “Web” portion of the term, shortening it to blog.

Soon after the term blog was invented, Pyra Labs launched Blogger, one of the earliest blog publishing systems. Over a decade later, it is Blogger that is largely credited with making the format popular. Thanks to this tool, average computer users could now set up their very own blog and begin sharing their thoughts with the world. Individuals no longer needed a sophisticated knowledge of programming to establish a presence on the Web, nor did they require a lot of money. Blogger allowed users to sign up free of charge, and add content by choosing from basic commands such as “Create a blog” or “new post.” Although Blogger remains a powerhouse in the blog publishing industry, there are now a number of other free blogging platforms, including WordPress, LiveJournal, and Thoughts.com.

Undoubtedly one of the most significant developments in the history of blogging occurred in 2003, when Internet giant Google created AdSense. It was AdSense that changed blogging from a personal hobby into a money-making venture. The program allowed blog creators to sign up for free accounts. Ads related to the theme of the blog were placed alongside the site content. For instance, a blog discussing weight loss strategies might include ads for green tea weight-loss pills, fitness DVDs, or dieting centers. Bloggers received compensation when interested visitors clicked on these ads, which directed them to third-party sites. The system is still used today by countless bloggers as a way to make money from their online writing ventures.

Today, blogs are increasingly being used not only by individuals, but also by companies of all sizes for a multitude of reasons. Those offering services and products frequently use blogs as a method to educate consumers. A law firm, for instance, might have a blog discussing recent settlements, pertinent laws related to the firm’s areas of practice, and the likely legal outcome of certain types of cases. In other instances, blogs are a tool to drive visitors to a particular company’s site. This is done by including words that users are likely to type into Google when they search for a particular product or service. Finally, some companies rely solely on AdSense to generate revenue. A business might create a blog focusing on acai berry, and ads selling acai berry products will be prominently displayed in the sidebar. The blog itself isn’t selling anything. Rather, the goal of the company is to get people to the site, and then provide information that will pique interest and lead to visitors clicking on one or more ads to find out more and, hopefully, purchase the supplement. 

Blogging is the epitome of freedom of expression. People from all walks of life, diverse religious backgrounds, and any political persuasion can now sign up for a free account and begin writing. No longer do individuals have to submit their essays to magazine or newspaper editors and wait for months for a response – all they have to do is log into their Blogger or WordPress account. That unparalleled freedom, however, does bring up several concerns. Information posted on blogs might not be accurate. Bloggers are free to present opinion as fact, and some blogs may contain hate propaganda that is harmful to society as a whole. These issues are not likely to go away anytime soon, as people around the world are increasingly gaining access to cyberspace and the many free, user-friendly blogging tools found within.

13. The word savvyin paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to

(A) casual

(B) perceptive *

(D) novice

14. According to paragraph 1, when did the first blog appear on the Internet?

(A) 1994 *

(B) 1997

(D) 2001

15. The word sophisticated in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to

(A) superficial

(B) universal

(D) complex *

16. What is NOT true of Blogger?

(A) It increased the popularity of blogging.

(B) It charges users a low monthly rate. *

(C)It has several competitors.

(D) It is easy for users to add content.

17. Why does the author mention AdSense in paragraph 3?

(A) To illustrate a point about Google

(B) To refute a common misperception

(D) Toexplain the mechanics of advertising

18. The word compensation in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to

(A) payment *

(B) commendation

(D) notification

19. Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage.

One site, Global Voices Online -- which "aggregates, curates, and amplifies the global conversation online – shining light on places and people other media often ignore" has developed a relationship with the wire service Reuters, and is responsible for breaking many global news stories.

Where would the sentence best fit?

Answer: 

20. The word those in the passage refers to

(A) blogs

(B) individuals

(D)reasons

21. The word pique in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to

(A) find

(B) douse

(D) arouse *

22.The word epitome in paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to

(A)nadir

(B) embodiment *

(D) fusion

23.Which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted

sentence? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

(A)Objectivity is suspect in a blog; furthermore, bloggers are free to disseminate hate and prejudice that could prove divisive. *

(B) Bloggers usually give their opinions as though they were facts, and typically spew hateful words about minority groups.

(C)Traditional laws against libel and slander that protect people in print and broadcast media do not apply to the Web.

(D) While most blogs serve to unite people, a small percentage do serve to drive people apart; also, the vast majority of blogs remain unread.

24.Complete the table below to summarize information about the function of blogs. Put the statement in the appropriate column. Some answer choices will not be used. This question is worth three points.

Educate consumers / Drive visitors to website / Generate revenue
B / E / C
F / G

(A)Summarizes recent family trip to Disneyland

(B) Discusses examples of recent company successes

(D) Opines about political and social injustices

(E) Includes keywords usable in Google searches

(F) Details benefits of holistic remedies

(G) Offers readers special access for a fee

Reading set 3

Alexander Calder

Today, mobiles are as common in a child’s nursery as a bassinet, yet chances are the parents who buy these whimsical decorations have no idea their purchase is a descendant of an innovative art form in the world ofkinetic sculpture, invented by American artist and sculptor Alexander Calder.

Alexander Calder was born in Lawton, Pennsylvania, in 1898. His father, Alexander Stirling Calder, enjoyed fame as an accomplished sculptor while his mother, Nanette Lederer Calder, was a successful portraitist. Despite a happy childhood creating art in a basement studio—making his first kinetic sculpture at the age of eleven, a duck fashioned from brass sheeting that rocked back and forth—as a young man, Calder decided to heed his parent’s advice to forgo an artistic career in favor of a reliable income. And so in 1915, after graduating high school, Calder abandoned his cherished art-marking, channeling his creative energies into attaining a degree in mechanical engineering from the Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey.

But working as a hydraulics engineer, then later as a draughtsman for the New York Edison Company, proved unfulfilling for Calder. ■ In 1922, he forfeited his steady paycheck and headed out aboard a passenger ship, the H. F. Alexander, as a boiler-room fireman. ■Upon the ship’s return to San Francisco, he took advantage of the relative proximity to his sister’s home in Aberdeen, Washington, and paid her a visit, finding work as a timekeeper at a local logging camp. ■ It was in Washington that inspiration struck. Captivated by the rugged scenery of the Pacific Northwest, Calder was drawn again into creative work, and began painting. Soon, he’d made the life-altering decision to move back to New York in order to pursue an artistic career, enrolling in the Art Students’ League. It was while in New York that Calder first visited the Ringling Brothers Circus, a critical milestone in his development as an artist that would manifesta year later after he’d moved to Paris and created his famed Cirque Calder.■

Constructed from a variety of found materials, such as clothing, leather and wire, the Cirque Calder was a miniature traveling circus comprised of replicas of performers, props and animals, all of it small enough to fit in a suitcase. Approximately two hours in length, the entire circus show was manipulated by Calder, who used wire to move the performers. The show was a huge success, and soon Calder was sculpting portraits of his friends from the same found materials used in Cirque Calder. In 1928 he had his first solo gallery show, at the Weyhe Gallery in New York. Meanwhile, he continued with the Cirque Calder, and his success both abroad and in Americameant he was soon shuttling between both continents on a steamer ship. It was during one of these trips abroad that he met Louisa James, grandniece of author Henry James. She and Calder were married in 1931.

In addition to catapulting Calder’s artistic career, the Cirque Calder also played a pivotal role in fueling his interest in kinetic art—art that relies on motion to achieve its effect—and wire sculpture. Using his mechanical engineering skills, the sculptor began creating kinetic sculptures that operated with a crank or pulley, thus pioneering a new art form for which he would gain even moreacclaim. The artist Marcel Duchamp, with whom Calder had become friends, christened these motion-based kinetic sculptures “mobiles,” a pun in French that means both “motive” and “mobile.”