Chapter 12
Although humanistic psychologists shun empirical research, research on topics introduced or promoted by these psychologists has provided insight into some important aspects of humanistic personality theory.
Research on self-disclosure finds that people follow social rules concerning when and how to reveal information about themselves
Self disclosure: act of revealing intimate information about oneself to another person.
Self-disclosure allows people to better understand themselves; allows people to grow emotionally and move toward self-actualization
The dyadic effect is the observation that persons who disclose personal information in conversations tend to match each other’s level of intimacy
The rule of Disclosure Reciprocity: matching a conversation partner’s self-disclosing intimacy level. 2 people getting acquainted in conversation are likely to reveal information about themselves at roughly the same level of intimacy. Friends who have already shared intimate information in a reciprocal manner do not always return to this pattern.
In a study of self-disclosure in which students took turns volunteering information about themselves, the students selected increasingly intimate topics, began with a discussion on trivial topics, tended to match their partner’s level of intimacy
Studies with couples in long-term romantic relationships find that self-disclosure in a marriage is a reliable predictor of marital satisfaction.
Other studies find men and women are restricted in what they disclose by what society deems appropriate—gender appropriate. Females tend to self-disclose more than males.
Holding traumatic secrets may take its toll on a person’s health. There are health benefits of disclosing traumatic information.
Loneliness is not the same as isolation loneliness defined as a discrepancy between the amount and quality of social contact we desire and the amount and quality we receive.
unpleasant feelings brought about by a perceived discrepancy between desired and achieved social interaction----How well the amount and quality of our relationships with others satisfies our personal needs
Although loneliness is influenced by social situations, people tend to suffer from loneliness at a fairly stable level. Lonely people appear to show little interest in getting to know others. May lack social skills, and thus have difficulty developing relationships
Loneliness has become epidemic on college campuses—as research suggests that the majority of college students experience loneliness on occasion
Research on chronically lonely people indicates they approach conversations with negative expectations and lack some basic social skills.
Lonely people tend to approach social interactions with overly pessimistic expectations for how the encounter will go. Given the opportunity to be in a conversation, lonely people tend to take on a passive interpersonal role.
whether a person dislikes or enjoys time alone may be a function of preference for solitude: extent to which people seek out and enjoy time alone.
Self-esteem: evaluation of one's self-concept, usually measured in terms of a relatively stable and global assessment of how a person feels about himself or herself.
Self-esteem is a person’s overall evaluation of his or her self-worth or self-image. Self concept is collation of what yousee as your personal characteristics; domains.
Very few people feel entirely good or bad about themselves, but typically these feelings are in regard to specific domains
Ups and downs—fluctuations in feelings: feelings of self worth
High and low self-esteem people react differently to failure.
Low self-esteem people become discouraged and unmotivated when they receive negative feedback. People low in self-esteem typically react to failure by losing their motivation
High self-esteem people employ tactics to blunt the effects of failure. When high self-esteem people are confronted with a negative evaluation, they tell themselves how well they do in other areas
Researchers find that high self-esteem people are often motivated by a concern for self-enhancement
Low self-esteem people are often more concerned about self-protection.
self-esteem stability The extent to which an individual's feelings of self-worth fluctuate.
Much of the research on self-esteem is correlational rather than experimental. Self-esteem is strongly related to happiness, and it seems highly likely that high self-esteem increases happiness while depression lowers it.
Recent research indicates that notions about the self and self-esteem taken from individualistic cultures may not apply to collectivist cultures.
Contingencies of Self worth
Self-esteem within specific domains
Academic; physical appearance
Areas used to evaluate ourselves: Contingencies of self worth; identify areas important to us
Explains why someone with limitations can still feel good about themselves
Select contingency areas where typically excel
Outside influences (parents)
Culture
Humanists: each choose own standards used
Maslow observed that virtually all of his psychologically healthy people reported a high preference for solitude.
Although people typically find this time unpleasant, others seek out and enjoy their time alone.
How do people react to time alone? What factors determine whether a person prefers solitude? What are the benefits to spending time alone?
Researchers find that people differ in the extent to which they prefer solitude. People with a high preference for solitude enjoy their time alone but also enjoy time spent with others.
Preference for Solitude: somewhat stable preference for being alone.
May be a reflection of and contributor to personal growth & development—explain desire of people to be alone.
People who spend a great deal of time by themselves---recognize benefits of solitude
Time alone—experience sampling method assessment process
Many report finding time alone less pleasant than time spent with others. Research finds that most people spend a large percentage of their time in solitude—more common as we age.
Time alone has benefits
3 types of solitude experience
Short periods solitude during day—make tough days beter
Break from social to organize thoughts and psychologically prepare for future activities. Self restoration, emotional renewal. Stated more cheerful and alert after time alone
Stress linked to too little time alone
More than a few minutes alone—may use to work through problems and make important decisions. Contemplation time
Excessive time alone is a problem
Extended solitude—days/weeks alone. Develop spiritually, intellectually, creatively.
Although people typically find solitude at times unpleasant, others seek out and enjoy their time alone. Researchers find that people differ in the extent to which they prefer solitude.
Those who avoid it—lonely and sad when forced to be alone.
People with a high preference for solitude enjoy their time alone but also enjoy time spent with others. More likely to resemble self-actualized
Study of college st daily activities
7 positive aspects of solitude
disclosure reciprocity / Matching a conversation partner's self-disclosing intimacy level.loneliness / Unpleasant feelings brought about by a perceived discrepancy between desired and achieved social interaction.
preference for solitude / The extent to which people seek out and enjoy time alone.
self-disclosure / The act of revealing intimate information about oneself to another person.
self-esteem / Evaluation of one's self-concept, usually measured in terms of a relatively stable and global assessment of how a person feels about himself or herself.
self-esteem stability / The extent to which an individual's feelings of self-worth fluctuate.