AIS3: Italian - Serbian Bilateral Workshop on “Science for Cultural Heritage”
Scientific approach in the conservation of cultural heritage
Giovanni E. Gigante1
1 Sapienza University of Rome, Italy, Department of Basic and Applied Sciences ,
Conservation as a Science Based practice
As Medicine become a science based practice in the mid of XIX century the Conservation of Cultural Heritage gradually experience this transition starting from the mid of XX century. This conceptual transition change from the beginning the framework in which are taken the conservative decisions.
Before was practically an Aesthetic decision based on the evidence of ‘beauty’ and following Ethical precepts, now is an experience based decision (that follow the result obtained in previous attempts).
Evidence Based Practice (EBP) is the integration of best research evidence with expertise and analysis of obtained results.
EBP ensures the use of current best available evidence to aid in decision making about the conservation of works of art and its environment to provide better outcomes for it.
This chart outlines the components of evidence-based education. Professional wisdom includes individual experience and consensus. Empirical evidence includes scientifically based research and empirical information.
Science and Evidence based approaches are joint together in a common logical framework. Today it is very common to refer to ‘guidelines’ and/or ‘protocols’ in order to drive a complex process. The concept itself to develop a protocol base on the optimised management of the Evidence.
The great development of modern medicine started with that of Biochemistry before a Molecular Biology and Genetics more recently. Can conservation science experience the same development using Material and Environmental sciences? Those sciences seems for the moment too generic and hedonistic to assure a continuous support to this difficult transition.
The Evolution of Conservation Theory
The modern conservation renounce to traditional Aesthetic foundations, but remain the constraint to obtain results suitable from an aesthetic point of view for the readability of the work of art. In addition, the historical meaning (or heritage) is more a constraint then the principal stimulus to the conservative action.
The care of cultural patrimony has a long history, one that was primarily aimed at fixing and restoring objects for their continued use and aesthetic enjoyment (Pye, 2001). Until the early 20th century, artists were normally the ones called upon to repair damaged artworks. During the 19th century, however, the fields of science and art became increasingly intertwined as scientists such as Michael Faraday began to study the damaging effects of the environment to works of art. Louis Pasteur carried out scientific analysis on paint during this time period as well (Stoner, 2005). However, perhaps the first organized attempt to apply a theoretical framework to the conservation of cultural heritage came with the founding in the United Kingdom of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings in 1877. The society was founded by William Morris and Philip Webb, both of whom were deeply influenced by the writings of John Ruskin. During the same period, a French movement with similar aims was being developed under the direction of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, an architect and theorist, famous for his "restorations" of medieval buildings.
Conservation as a distinct field of study initially developed in Germany, where in 1888 Friedrich Rathgen became the first chemist to be employed by a Museum, the Koniglichen Museen in Berlin. He not only developed a scientific approach to the care of objects in the collections, but disseminated this approach by publishing a "Handbook of Conservation" in 1898 (Gilberg, 1987). The early development of conservation in any area of the world is usually linked to the creation of positions for conservation scientists within museums. However in the United Kingdom, pioneering research into painting materials and conservation, ceramics, and stone conservation was conducted by Arthur Pillans Laurie, academic chemist and Principal of Heriot-Watt University from 1900. Laurie's interests were fostered by William Holman Hunt. In 1924 in the UK the chemist Harold Plenderleith began to work at the British Museum with Dr. Alexander Scott in the newly created Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, thus giving birth to the conservation profession in the UK (British Museum, 2012). This department was created by the museum to address the deteriorating condition of objects in the collection, damages which were a result of their being stored in the London Underground tunnels during the First World War. The creation of this department at the British Museum made Britain a prime force in this fledgling field, and moved the focus for the development of conservation theory called The Conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art, which supplanted Rathgen's earlier tome, and which set new standards for the development of art and cultural conservation.
In the United States, the development of conservation can be traced to the Fogg Art Museum, and Edward Waldo Forbes, the Director of the Fogg from 1909 to 1944. He encouraged technical investigation, and was Chairman of the Advisory Committee for the first technical journal, Technical Studies, in the Field of the Fine Arts, published by the Fogg from 1932 to 1942. Importantly he also brought onto the museum staff chemists. Rutherford John Gettens was the first chemist in the U. S. to be permanently employed by an art museum. He worked with George L. Stout, the founder and first editor of Technical Studies. Gettens and Stout co-authored Painting Materials: A Short Encyclopaedia, first published in 1942 and reprinted in 1966. This compendium is still cited regularly. Only a few dates and descriptions in Gettens' and Stout's book are now outdated (Stoner, 2005).
The focus of conservation development then accelerated in Britain and America, but also in Italy where in the 1939 was founded the National Institute for Restoration with the aim to drive the restoration practice in the direction of modern activity. The first International Conservation Organization developed in Britain. The International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (IIC) was incorporated under British law in 1950 as "a permanent organization to co-ordinate and improve the knowledge, methods, and working standards needed to protect and preserve precious materials of all kinds." (IIC, 2013). The rapid growth of conservation professional organizations, publications, journals, newsletters, both internationally and in localities, has spearheaded the development of the conservation profession, both practically and theoretically. Art historians and theorists such as Cesare Brandi have also played a significant role in developing conservation-restoration theory. In the 1963 Brandi in his ‘Theory of Restoration’ of give a definition of ‘Restauro’ as the “…methodological moment of the recognition of the work (heritage resource) in its physical consistency and its significance (aesthetic and historic), in view of its transmission to the future. The focus in restoration is the material object, and the aim is to re-establish the potential unity of the work so far as this is possible without committing an historic or artistic fake, and without cancelling traces of its passage in time (Brandi 2005). In Autonomy of Restoration: Ethical Considerations in Relation to Artistic Concepts van de Wetering stressed, based on the a priori, all too often confirmed by experience, that conservation-restoration is always an interpretation of the object concerned and therefore implies the risk of being a mistaken anachronistic interpretation(van de Wetering, 1996) .
In recent years ethical concerns have been at the forefront of developments in conservation with the borrowing of concept of sustainability by Environmental research, which logically imply the practice of Preventive conservation. This concept is based in part on the pioneering work by Garry Thomson CBE, and his book the Museum Environment, first published in 1978 (Thomson, 1986). Thomson was associated with the National Gallery (London), it was here that he established a set of guidelines or environmental controls for the best conditions in which objects could be stored and displayed within the Museum Environment. Although his exact guidelines are no longer rigidly followed they did inspire this field of conservation. Also in Italy the Director of Istituto Centrale per il Restauro in the 1975 launch a project for experience a preventive conservation of a vast area of Central Italy (Urbani 1976).
The practice of Conservation and the grow up of accreditations paths in the world
The practice of conservation is well described in several documents that are available for download in the web. To give an example we can cite three documents that reflect different position in the description of the conservation/restoration activity. Below there is the list of these three documents:
· ICCROM-CURRIC Project, Vocational training curricula for conservation scientists, EU-Leonardo Programme, 2000-2003.
· Competences for the access to the Conservation-Restoration profession”, European Confederation of Conservator/Restorers, ISBN 978-92-990010
· The Professional Accreditation of Conservator-Restorers (PACR, UK), 2008 (last revision) AIC Code of Ethics and Guidelines for Practice, Becoming a Conservator, The American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works (AIC).
The first is a description of the work of a Conservation Scientist in the today environment of research.
CURRIC - University Postgraduate Curricula for Conservation Scientists
A Conservation Scientist today can be defined as a scientist owing a good scientific background and further knowledge in conservation (ethics, history, cultural values, historical technologies, past and present conservation technologies and practice, specific scientific aspects, etc.) which enables him/her to contribute to the study and conservation of Cultural Heritage within an interdisciplinary team.
The skills of a conservation scientist are:
· to be conversant with the phenomenological approach to problem solving
· ability to formulate and carry out research
· ability to formulate practical solutions
· ability to work in an interdisciplinary way
· ability to communicate effectively
· Additional skills might include the ability to teach and manage human and economical resources
The competence are:
· Study, investigate and monitor Cultural Heritage and its environment with respect to conservation and preservation.
· Define, develop and evaluate conservation concepts, materials, measures, methods and techniques and develop standards and guidelines
· Provide diagnosis before, during and after conservation interventions
· Conduct research on causes and mechanisms of deterioration and interpret scientific results for the benefit of the conservation of Cultural Heritage
· Communicate the scientific principles of conservation and promote scientific research in conservation
To train scientific experts that, starting from a sound understanding of materials and techniques of investigation, both in the laboratory and in the field, are able to perform:
· diagnostic tests and monitoring of the cultural heritage for conservation and restoration purposes
· archaeometrical and scientific research on the material constitution and on the causes and mechanisms of deterioration of the cultural heritage
· environmental surveys for conservation and safety purposes
The second document is a straightforward description of the competences of a Conservator-Restorers done by the European Confederation of Organisations Conservator-Restorers' (ECCO). Based on current trends, the activities of conservation / restoration should be planned with a methodology that is similar to that of the development of a project, e.g. as an environmental protection project. This is also outlined in the recommendations that the has issued in the last decade (ECCO Competences 2011). The Conservation-Restoration process can be roughly dived in seven phases (as show in the below diagram):
· Examination and diagnosis. It involves assessment of the nature of the object, the causes of alteration and the risks that the cultural heritage faces in its current situation.
· Assessment of needs. Including current use and planned future use.
· Selection of Conservation-Restoration activities. Selection of treatments taking into account (i) the guidelines and conservative protocols, (ii) the desired results, (iii) the level of intervention required, (iv) the evaluation of alternatives, constraints on actions, stakeholder demands, risks and options for future use
· Planning including consideration of health and safety, legislation, insurance, project planning, finance and equipment and facilities
· Execution. This step encompasses Preventive measures, Remedial measures, Restoration processes and management processes.
· Evaluation of results. This includes evaluation of the change in risk, success of treatment or activity and communication of the results.
· Aftercare advice. Identification of future actions required to sustain the cultural heritage. This may include a schedule of future works and guidelines for care and maintenance.
Bibliography
Pye E. 2001. Caring for the Past: Issues in Conservation for Archaeology and Museums. London: James and James
Stoner Joyce Hill. 2005. “Changing Approaches in Art Conservation: 1925 to the present” in (Sackler NAS Colloquium) Scientific Examination of Art: Modern Techniques in Conservation and Analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Gilberg Mark. (1987). "Friedrich Rathgen: The Father of Modern Archaeological Conservation". Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 26 (2): 105–120. doi:10.2307/3179459.
British Museum, Conservation and Science Department http://www.britishmuseum.org /about_us/departments/conservation_and_science/history.aspx.
International Institute for Conservation, 2013. https://www.iiconservation.org/
Thompson, 1986. Garry Thomson “Museum Environment” (2nd Edition), 1986, by CBE ISBN 978-0-7506-2041-3.
Brandi 2005. Theory of Restoration ( trans. Cynthia Rockwell; rev. Dorothy Bell), Edited by Giuseppe Basile , Nardini Florence 2005
Urbani G. 1976. Piano pilota per la conservazione programmata dei beni culturali dell'Umbria. In Intorno al restauro, ed. B. Zanardi. Milan: Skira. 2000, 103-112.
van de Wetering, E. 1996, ‘The autonomy of restoration: ethical considerations in relation to artistic concepts’, in Historical and Philosophical Issues in the Conservation of Cultural Heritage, eds. N. Stanley Price et al., Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles (1996) pp. 193–199.
ECCO 2011. “Competences for the access to the Conservation-Restoration profession”, European Confederation of Conservator/Restorers, ISBN 978-92-990010
PACR 2008. PACR “Professional Standards”, http://www.icon.org.uk/index.php
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