Adventure Isn't Hanging on a Rope Off the Side of a Mountain

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Adventure isn't hanging on a rope off the side of a mountain.

Adventure is an attitude that we must apply to the day to day obstacles of life -- facing new challenges, seizing new opportunities,

testing our resources against the unknown and in the process,

discovering our own unique potential.
--John Amatt

Children in Singapore are brought up in an environment of growing affluence, urban dwelling and excessive television watching. The effects of modern living in a contemporary society like Singapore are an increased level of obesity, low level of fitness, a lack of social and affective development among adolescents in Singapore. This trend has been a cause of concern for the Singapore government and Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong, has on more than one occasion, called for Singaporeans to return to the rugged society (Straits Times, 13 Mar 1990).

In March 1990, it was reported that from trend analysis, one out of five Secondary four boys in 1993 would be obese if the situation remained unchecked. PM Goh cautioned that if Singaporeans were not rugged, fit and healthy as a society, they would not be able to withstand the pressure of competition, endure the rigours of military training, and survive the heat of battles (Sunday Times, 11 Mar 1990).

Arising from the push towards a rugged society in 1990, the Ministry of Education (MOE), Singapore, endorsed a policy to ensure that every secondary school student goes through at least one residential camping experience in his or her secondary school years. Outdoor education programmes such as camps have since been established as important aspects of the education system in Singapore, integral to the holistic development of our pupils. Camping is, by far, the most popular outdoor education programme activity offered by schools. A survey conducted in 1991 by the then Extra[1]-Curricular Activities Branch of MOE, revealed that 98% of primary schools conducted camps with activities such as treasure hunts, nature rambles, camp crafts and folk dancing (ECAC, 1991).

Along with the surge in the number of schools embarking on such camping programmes, it is important for schools to be able to identify the precise nature of the outcomes expected from such outdoor education and camping programmes, and to prove that these expected outcomes have been achieved. Otherwise, it may be difficult to provide evidence to convince decision-makers and budget holders of the importance of such experiences over other less resource-intensive educational programmes. It is therefore essential to investigate whether the pupils actually benefit from participating in outdoor camping experiences organized by schools, as compared to pupils who do not go through similar experiences.

Since the inception of outdoor education and camping programmes in schools, many claims have been made with regards to their effectiveness. The precise nature of their benefits and how they can be measured remain unclear (Harris, 2000). Through the years, there have been numerous studies by Henderson (2001); Marsh (1999); Marsh, Richards, & Barnes (1986). McCalden (2002); McKenzie (2000); McRoberts (1994) and Tan (2002) that examined specific benefits of outdoor activities on such aspects as self-concepts, self-efficacy, physical fitness and academic success. There have, however, been very few studies addressing the issues of how outdoor education programmes and camps impact on life-effectiveness, a measure of perceived personal effectiveness in a variety of psychological and behavioural phenomena (Neill et al., 2003).

It is important to look not only at where outdoor education has been, but what people are learning from it today and where it may lead in the future (Stenger, 2001). More recently, the educational landscape of Singapore has also evolved into one that is more responsive to the new challenges of a global economy and unpredictable changes. Acting Minister for Education, Mr Tharman Shanmugaratnam, in his opening address at the Co-Curricular Activities (CCA) Conference in 2003, emphasized the need to prepare our young by nurturing in them life skills and attributes such as tenacity, a robust and flexible attitude to life and more of a spirit of ‘can do’, in order to survive the new economy.

If outdoor education and camping experiences could indeed contribute to positive development in these areas, they certainly have great value in an economy like Singapore. Thus, the belief that outdoor education and camping experiences offer excellent opportunities to develop these life skills ought to be explored further. According to Neill et al. (2003), life-effectiveness which is defined as the psychological and behavioral aspects of human functioning that determine a person’s proficiency in any given situation, can be measured by the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire-Version H (LEQ-H). Therefore, this study aims to offer some insights on the impact of a typical 3-day camping experience provided by Singapore schools, on the life effectiveness of Primary five pupils, as measured by the LEQ-H.

Operational Definitions

Two key definitions exist in this study. Outdoor education has enjoyed a long history, beginning with camping education and school camping experiences (Richardson & Simmons, 1996). Camping is therefore, viewed as one dimension of the total spectrum of outdoor education (Boyes, 2000). Life effectiveness is a measure of how competent a person perceives him/herself to be in a variety of areas necessary for success in life (Neill et al., 2003) and is measured by using the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire - Version H (LEQ-H) (Neill, 2000). The instrument measures the following eight dimensions: Achievement Motivation, Active Initiative, Emotional Control, Intellectual Flexibility, Self-confidence, Social Competence, Task Leadership, and Time Management (Neill, 2000).

School-Based Outdoor Education

The beginnings of school-based camping and outdoor education can be traced to the 1800s. From 1823 to 1834, Round Hill, an all-male school located in Massachusetts, offered two hours of physical education and outdoor activity per day. In the early 1860s, Frederick William Gunn initiated camping as part of the educational curriculum. It was not until the 1940s that overnight school camps during the school year became more popular. The earliest programmes in Michigan, Texas, Missouri, and California paved the way for other schools to begin including outdoor education as part of the curricular (Stenger, 2001).

In 1941, Kurt Hahn began a programme of ropes obstacle course that was meant to simulate ship settings at sea for young sailors (Priest & Gass, 1997). This month-long programme was designed to accelerate the development of independence and initiative.Its success led to the establishment of Outward Bound schools (Hattie et al., 1997)and a global explosion of programmes that modelled after them. From the late 1970s, there was a programmatic shift in school–based outdoor education programmes in the United States. Organisations such as Outward Bound, NationalOutdoorLeadershipSchool, and Project Adventure become more popular, many outdoor providers started including adventure / challenge / risk activities as part of their curricular (Stenger, 2001).

Over the years, outdoor educationprogrammes have evolved from simple camping experiences in the outdoors to complicated educational processes that are purposefully planned and implemented (Tan, 2002; O’Donnell, 2002). They may also range from simple nature study programmes to camping skills, to in-depth environmental education programmes, to high adventure programmes or a combination of these components (Stenger, 2001).

Adventure-based Programmes in Singapore schools

Some of the providers of outdoor education and adventure-based programmes locally are Outward Bound Singapore, the Singapore Adventure Team, the Singapore Mountaineering Federation, the Singapore International Foundation, the National Community Leadership Institute, the National Youth Council and other private companies. They provide activities such as camps, expeditions, hikes, kayaking, abseiling, rock climbing, ropes obstacles course, sailing and a variety of trust-building games.

School adventure-based programmes in Singapore come under the authority of the CCA Branch of MOE. Adventure-based camping programmes have been part of the co-curricular component of the education system for a number of years. The policy introduced in 1990 of providing every secondary school pupil of about 50, 000 pupils per year with a camping experience, was however, not extended to pupils in the primary school. It was believed that the same cohorts of pupils would go through similar experiences in their secondary school career (CCAB, 2001).

Currently, almost all schools in Singapore embark on some form of adventure-based programmes, ranging from challenge ropes courses to orienteering, for their pupils. An average of 70 primary schools of about 12, 000 pupils go through school camping programmes at the MOE Adventure Centres yearly. The programmes for primary schools usually span over a three-day period, accommodating to about 100 to 200 pupils each time. The design and nature of schools’ programmes vary from school to school, largely dependent on the availability of individual school’s financial, manpower and physical resources. The camps conducted by the schools in this study are typically adventure-based and included activities such as camp craft, campfire, orienteering, team-building or initiative games, challenge ropes courses, abseiling and climbing.

Many primary schools hold their camps for primary five pupils, rather than other levels of pupils. One reason cited is that lower primary pupils (primary one to three) are deemed too young for the rigours of such camps. Another reason is the lack of suitable facilities and equipment that cater to the needs of this age group. In addition, primary four pupils have streaming examinations while the primary six pupils go through the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE). Therefore, camps were not usually planned for these two cohorts of pupils as their main focus would be on the preparing for these National examinations.

MOE Adventure Centres

In order to meet emerging needs for safety and quality adventure programmes for students, MOE developed a total of three adventure centres over the past ten years. Each of these outdoor learning centres has been upgraded to provide adventure facilities to cater to the needs of schools’ outdoor education and adventure-based programmes. These facilities include: (a) team-building / creative problem-solving stations; (b) a high tower for rock-climbing, abseiling and zip-line; (c) challenge ropes course; and (d) ample space for orienteering.

During the camps, initial training was given in the areas of belaying and safety. The students usually operate in groups of 15 to 20, which was acceptable for upper primary students. While physical activity was part of the programme, the primary goal was not fitness. Rather, the claim was that through these activities, students learn about confidence; goal-setting; choice and consequence; responsibility; teamwork; craft; and skills in an enjoyable manner.

Researcher Background

The researcher is a senior education officer of the Ministry of Education’s (MOE’s) Outdoor Education unit, pursuing research leading towards a Master’s degree at the National Institute of Education of NanyangTechnologicalUniversity. During her term with MOE as an outdoor education specialist, the researcher’s scope of duties included developing, conducting and facilitating a wide range of outdoor education and adventure-based courses for students and teachers.

Besides developing and overseeing schools’ adventure-based and outdoor education programmes, the researcher is also responsible for the management of the MOE adventure centres. The adventure centres are equipped with facilities for activities such as rock-climbing, kayaking, Challenge Ropes Courses (CRC) and abseiling. She is also an assessor for teacher instructors who wished to conduct activities such as CRC, abseiling, rock-climbing and kayaking at the MOE adventure centres. In addition, she plays an advisory role to more than 40 schools located in the East Zone of Singapore. Imbued with the diverse range of experiences and knowledge related to the outdoor education field, the author is fully conversant with most aspects of schools’ adventure-based camping programmes in Singapore.

Rationale for the Study

Given the rapid increase in adventure programmes that utilize challenge in the outdoors as an integral and critical part of their educational method, it is worth asking about their effectiveness (Cooper, 1994; Crompton & Sellar, 1981; Hattie et al., 1997). The considerable number of students, staff, time and expenditure committed to schools’ adventure programmes and even a policy to ensure its implementation underscores the important role it plays in the education set-up of Singapore.Understanding what happened to the children during an adventure programme, and whether the outcomes were in line with what were reported in psychological theories would help provide important information to the benefits of such programmes (Tan, 2002; Neill, 1994b).

Today, we live in an age where the speed of change is unparalleled. This shift towards a knowledge-based society will have enormous implications for education in Singapore. It requires our educators to constantly re-evaluate the goals and processes in education so that we may be responsive to the ever-changing external landscape. It also means that our schools need to prepare our students for a demanding, and a constantly changing workplace. Our young will be well prepared if they acquire a strong foundation of knowledge in school, learn how to communicate well and develop the ability to interact with different people. Other “key skills for the future” include the knack of being flexible, the ability to think on their feet and be innovative and enterprising.

Neill (2000) and Hattie et al. (1997) classified these “key skills for the future” as life effectiveness. Essentially, it refers to how an individual acts, responds and thinks in a variety of situations and it is proposed that the greater one’s personal effectiveness, the more likely that person is to achieve success in life. Indeed, outdoor education and adventure-based programmes provide excellent opportunities for these key skills of life effectiveness to be taught and caught (Moote & Wodarski, 1997; Neill & Heubeck, 1998).

The objective of this study, therefore, is to measure the impact of three-day adventure-based programmes on Singaporean primary five pupils’ life effectiveness, as measured by the LEQ-H.

Significance of the Study

Given the emerging role that outdoor and adventure-based programmes play in the Singapore education system, the findings of this study could help provide some insights into using outdoor education as a conduit for acquiring life effectiveness. The significance of the study was further emphasized by the dearth of local research and information on outdoor adventure programmes and life effectiveness. The majority of the participants in research related to outdoor and adventure education were conducted with Caucasians and adults (Tan, 2002).

Why is it crucial that comparisons are made with the findings of local studies? Programmes in various countries and regions make cultural assumptions about participants and the relative importance of various elements and processes. Even attitudes towards risk, communicating of feelings, and relating to the nature vary widely. Culture also influences important programme characteristics such length, location, and types of activities, just to name a few. There is an acute lack of research and information on adventure-based programmes in local context. To date, only two local studies by Siow (2000) and Tan (2002) that examined outcomes of adventure-based programmes were found to be close to being relevant. There were no local studies that dealt with how outdoor education impact on life effectiveness.

Siow (2000) investigated the effects of adventure-based group work programme on juvenile delinquents, particularly their self-esteem. A three-day outdoor camp comprising activities such as high ropes courses, climbing, abseiling and kayaking was designed. The experimental group and control group consisted of 25 and 14 participants respectively (aged 14 – 17), and were previously convicted of criminal offences. The Self–Esteem Checklist was employed to measure self-esteem changes prior to and after the camp. Results showed that increases in self-esteem were not significant.

Tan (2002) examined the self-concept changes prior to and after the adventure programme. The sample consisted of 66 primary pupils (38 male, 28 female), aged 11 on the average. Harter’s Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC) was used to measure the five domains of a child’s self-concept and a sixth independent judgement of one’s global self–worth. Qualitative methods of observations and interviews were also employed to document the children’s experiences. The study found sufficient evidence to support adventure programme as an effective intervention that could enhance self-concept of children (p< .05).

The studies on life effectiveness using the LEQ-H were largely carried out on Australian population and were mostly on OutwardBoundSchool programmes. Clearly, there were limited research on Asians and local school children and this represents a knowledge gap in the local context. This is evident by: (a) the lack of literature on outdoor education such as the “Journal of Experiential Education” and the “Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Leadership” in the local libraries; (b) to date, only two local studies by Siow (2000) and Tan (2000) have been conducted to examine the outcomes of outdoor and adventure education; and (c) there was no local study linked to life effectiveness or that has made used of LEQ.