Predicting life outcomes – supplemental material 1
Supplemental Materials
Vocational Interests Assessed at the End of High School Predict Life Outcomes Assessed 10 Years Later Over and Above IQ and Big Five Personality Traits
by G. Stoll et al., 2016, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Reliability and Validity of the AIST-R
Because the AIST-R is published only in the German language and most readers will not have access to the manual, some additional information about the reliability and validity of the AIST-R—as provided in the test manual (Bergmann & Eder, 2005)—is summarized here. Sample items for each of the six scales of the AIST-R are provided in Table 6.
Reliabilities in terms of internal consistency are good. Cronbach’s alphas range from α = .82 for Artistic and Conventional to α = .87 for Social and Enterprising. Re-test reliabilities over a two-day interval range between rtt =.83 for Conventional and rtt =.96 for Realistic. Re-test reliabilities over a two-year interval range between rtt =.60 for Conventional and rtt =.75 for Realisitic.
The AIST-R shows convergent validity with other inventories measuring vocational interests. For example, the corresponding scales of the AIST-R and the Explorix (Jörin, Stoll, Bergmann & Eder, 2004)—the German adaptation of the Self-Directed Search (Holland, 1985)—show convergent validity, with correlations ranging from r = .62 for Realistic interest and r = .75 for Enterprising interest. In addition, the scales of the AIST-R show moderate associations with the Big Five personality traits as measured with the German version of the NEO-FFI (Borkenau & Ostendorf, 1993). The correlation pattern between the two inventories indicates discriminant validity for the AIST-R in reference to a Big Five measure. In line with meta-analytic results (Larson, Rottinghaus, & Borgen, 2002), the highest associations for males and females were found between Artistic–Openness (r=.50/.62), Enterprising–Extraversion (r=.48/.39), Social–Extraversion (r=.31/19), Investigative–Openness (r=.39/.32), and Social–Agreeableness (r=.34/.31).
There are significant gender differences in the RIASEC scales measured by the AIST-R. These gender differences correspond to the gender differences typically found in other countries and with different measures of vocational interest. In line with meta-analytic results (Su,Rounds, & Armstrong, 2009), on the AIST-R, men score higher on Realistic (d = 1.40) and Investigative (d = 0.68) interests, whereas women score higher on Artistic (d = 0.72) and Social (d = 0.93) interests. In deviation with meta-analytic results (Su et al., 2009), on the AIST-R, males score higher on Conventional interest than females (d = 0.17).
As the AIST-R manual (Bergmann & Eder, 2005) does not provide extensive information about its structural validity, we refer to an independent study that investigated the structure of vocational interest as assessed with the AIST-Rin two German samples (Nagy, Trautwein, & Lüdtke, 2010). Structural analyses using two different methods—the randomization test of hypothesized order relations (RTOR) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)—show that the AIST-R measures vocational interests according to Holland’s circular representation. CFA analyses also revealed that interest structure is reasonably invariant between high school and university students, but that the configurations for high school females and males differ. In particular, females seem to differentiate less between Realistic and Investigative interests at the end of high school.
To eliminate the possibility thata lack of differentiation may affect the interpretation of the six RIASEC interests, we conducted separate structural tests using circular unidimensional scaling (Armstrong, Hubert, & Rounds, 2003)on males and females. Thecircular unidimensional scaling procedure incorporates three steps: determination of the optimal ordering of the six types, estimation of inflection points in the circular structure, and estimation of the distances between the types in the circular structure (see Armstrong, et al., 2003). Provided results include the optimal ordering of the six types, the set of distances between the types in the circular structure that fits the data best, and the amount of variance accounted (VAF) for by the best fitting model.For our data set, results indicate that for both females and males, the optimal circular ordering of the six types was the RIASEC ordering as specified by Holland. We provide a visual representation of the obtained quasi-circumplex structures for males and females in Figure 1. The numeric values within the circular structures indicate the proportion of the circle represented by the distances between each pair of adjacent types. Comparing the results of the two subsamples indicatesthat the distances between interest types in the two quasi-circumplex structures are not identical: The distance between Realistic and Investigative was .10 for males and .04 for females, whereas the distance between Social and Enterprising was .10 for males and .23 for females. In addition, the male AIST-R data (VAF = .92) fit the circulant model better than the female AIST-R data (VAF = .76). Nevertheless, the revealed VAF values both exceeded the cutoff value of.60 necessary for a good fit of the quasi-circumplex model (Armstrong, et al., 2003). In addition, VAF values in our sample were comparable to the VAF values for different U.S. racial-ethnic groups on the UNIACT Interest Inventory (Swaney, 1995) and the Strong Interests Inventory (Harmon, Hansen, Borgen, & Hammer, 1994), which ranged from .61 to .95 (Armstrong et al., 2003).These results demonstrate that the AIST-R scales measure vocational interest according to Holland’s structural assumptions.
References
Armstrong, P. I., Hubert, L., & Rounds, J., (2003). Circular Unidimensional Scaling: A new look at group differences in interest structure. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50(3), 297–308. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.50
Bergmann, C., & Eder, F. (2005). Allgemeiner Interessen-Struktur-Test mit Umwelt-Struktur-Test (UST-R) —Revision. [General Interest Structure Test and Environmental Structure Test – Revision]. Göttingen, Germany: Beltz.
Borkenau, P., & Ostendorf, F. (1993). NEO-Fünf-Faktoren Inventar nach Costa und McCrae. [NEO Five Factor Inventory after Costa and McCrae]. Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Harmon, L. W., Hansen, J. C., Borgen, F. H., & Hammer, A. L. (1994). Strong Interest Inventory applications and technical guide.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Holland, J. L. (1985). The self-directed search. Psychological Assessment Resources.
Jörin, S., Stoll, F., Bergmann, C., & Eder, F. (2004). EXPLORIX – das Werkzeug zur Berufswahl und Laufbahnplanung. Deutschsprachige Adaptation und Weiterentwicklung des Self-Directed Search (SDS) nach John Holland (Testmanual). [EXPLORIX – the tool for occupational choices and career planning. German adaptation and development of John Holland’s Self-Directed Search (SDS), testmanual]. Bern, Switzerland: Huber.
Larson, L. M., Rottinghaus, P. J. & Borgen, F. H. (2002). Meta‐analyses of Big Six interests and Big Five personality factors. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61(2), 217–239.
Nagy, G., Trautwein, U., & Lüdtke, O. (2010). The structure of vocational interests in Germany: Different methodologies, different conclusions.Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76(2), 153–169. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2007.07.002
Su, R., Rounds J. & Armstrong, P. I. (2009). Men and things, women and people: A meta-analysis of sex differences in interests. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 859–884. doi:10.1037/a0017364
Swaney, K. B. (1995). Technical manual: Revised unisex edition of the ACT Interest Inventory (UNIACT). Iowa City, IA: American CollegeTesting.
Predicting life outcomes – supplemental material 1
Table 7. Sample items for the six AIST-R scales
Scale / Sample itemsRealistic / Working with machines or technical devices
Doing physically straining work
Investigative / Working in an experimental laboratory
Dealing with unexplored things
Artistic / Creating something according to artistic/aesthetic aspects
Reading and interpreting poetry/ literature
Social / Taking care of and supervising other people
Teaching or nurturing someone
Enterprising / Leading a group at work
Advertising for something
Conventional / Doing the bookkeeping/accountancy
Collecting, organizing and administering things
Note.A person who was raised bilingually translated the sample items into English.
Table 8. Logistic Regression Models PredictingFull-Time Employment
Model 1 / Model 2 / Model 3 / Model 4
Predictors / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p
Controls
Gender (f = 1) / 0.25 / [0.18, 0.34] / .000 / 0.24 / [0.18, 0.33] / .000 / 0.45 / [0.32, 0.64] / .000 / 0.43 / [0.30, 0.61] / .000
Gradea / 0.91 / [0.79, 1.04] / .173 / 0.93 / [0.81, 1.08] / .343 / 0.92 / [0.79, 1.07] / .274 / 0.94 / [0.81, 1.10] / .449
HSES / 0.95 / [0.83, 1.08] / .418 / 0.97 / [0.85, 1.10] / .606 / 0.99 / [0.87, 1.14] / .902 / 0.99 / [0.87, 1.13] / .897
Cognitive ability / 1.03 / [0.90, 1.18] / .637 / 1.04 / [0.90, 1.19] / .605 / 0.91 / [0.78, 1.05] / .176 / 0.91 / [0.79, 1.05] / .209
Personality
Neuroticism / 1.05 / [0.90, 1.22] / .574 / 1.08 / [0.92, 1.27] / .373
Extraversion / 1.10 / [0.95, 1.27] / .204 / 1.06 / [0.89, 1.25] / .529
Openness / 0.87 / [0.75, 1.01] / .063 / 1.06 / [0.88, 1.28] / .556
Agreeableness / 0.89 / [0.78, 1.03] / .118 / 1.00 / [0.85, 1.18] / .9986
Conscientiousness / 1.32 / [1.14, 1.53] / .000 / 1.13 / [0.96, 1.32] / .134
Interests
Realistic / 1.36 / [1.11, 1.67] / .003 / 1.38 / [1.12, 1.69] / .002
Investigative / 1.06 / [0.90, 1.25] / .485 / 1.04 / [0.87, 1.24] / .661
Artistic / 0.71 / [0.61, 0.83] / .000 / 0.70 / [0.58, 0.85] / .000
Social / 0.74 / [0.63, 0.88] / .000 / 0.74 / [0.62, 0.88] / .001
Enterprising / 1.32 / [1.10, 1.57] / .003 / 1.28 / [1.04, 1.58] / .022
Conventional / 1.18 / [0.98, 1.43] / .085 / 1.16 / [0.96, 1.40] / .130
PSEUDO R² / .13 / .16 / .22 / .22
AIC / 156562.22 / 156561.20 / 156574.14 / 156572.07
SBIC / 157152.24 / 157151.21 / 157164.15 / 157162.09
Note.N = 3,023; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement. Coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 9. Logistic Regression Models PredictingUnemployment
Model 1 / Model 2 / Model 3 / Model 4
Predictors / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p
Controls
Gender (f = 1) / 1.34 / [1.05, 1.70] / .017 / 1.42 / [1.09, 1.84] / .010 / 1.07 / [0.80, 1.43] / .643 / 1.20 / [0.88,1.63] / .259
Gradea / 1.39 / [1.23, 1.57] / .000 / 1.37 / [1.20, 1.57] / .000 / 1.41 / [1.24, 1.60] / .000 / 1.36 / [1.19, 1.55] / .000
HSES / 1.04 / [0.91, 1.18] / .573 / 1.02 / [0.89, 1.17] / .776 / 1.02 / [0.89, 1.16] / .820 / 1.02 / [0.89, 1.163] / .793
Cognitive ability / 0.90 / [0.79, 1.03] / .135 / 0.89 / [0.77, 1.01] / .078 / 0.94 / [0.81, 1.08] / .360 / 0.92 / [0.80, 1.05] / .211
Personality
Neuroticism / 0.92 / [0.80, 1.05] / .220 / 0.91 / [0.79, 1.06] / .226
Extraversion / 0.92 / [0.81, 1.06] / .249 / 0.94 / [0.81, 1.10] / .467
Openness / 1.28 / [1.13, 1.45] / .000 / 1.15 / [0.96, 1.38] / .123
Agreeableness / 0.81 / [0.72, 0.92] / .001 / 0.81 / [0.70, 0.93] / .003
Conscientiousness / 0.75 / [0.66, 0.86] / .000 / 0.78 / [0.68, 0.90] / .001
Interests
Realistic / 0.87 / [0.76, 1.01] / .063 / 0.89 / [0.77, 1.04] / .148
Investigative / 1.03 / [0.88, 1.19] / .745 / 0.97 / [0.82, 1.15] / .741
Artistic / 1.44 / [1.24, 1.68] / .000 / 1.27 / [1.03, 1.56] / .027
Social / 0.88 / [0.76, 1.00] / .055 / 0.95 / [0.82, 1.09] / .441
Enterprising / 0.97 / [0.81, 1.16] / .738 / 0.95 / [0.77, 1.18] / .655
Conventional / 0.91 / [0.78, 1.06] / .226 / 0.99 / [0.85, 1.16] / .898
PSEUDO R² / .05 / .10 / .08 / .11
AIC / 156709.45 / 156709.59 / 156712.73 / 156710.86
SBIC / 157299.47 / 157299.60 / 157302.74 / 157300.88
Note.N = 3,023; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement. Coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 10. Linear Regression Models PredictingGross Income
Model 1 / Model 2 / Model 3 / Model 4 / Model 5
Predictors / β / [95% CI] / p / β / [95% CI] / p / β / [95% CI] / p / β / [95% CI] / p / β / [95% CI] / p
Controls
Gender (f = 1) / -0.46 / [-0.57, -0.35] / .000 / -0.41 / [-0.53, -0.30] / .000 / -0.18 / [-0.31, -0.04] / .012 / -0.20 / [-0.34, -0.06] / .005 / -0.10 / [-0.22, 0.03] / .121
Gradea / -0.13 / [-0.19, -0.07] / .000 / -0.14 / [-0.20, -0.08] / .000 / -0.13 / [-0.19, -0.07] / .000 / -0.13 / [-0.20, -0.07] / .000 / -0.13 / [-0.19, -0.08] / .000
HSES / 0.01 / [-0.05, 0.07] / .682 / 0.02 / [-0.03, 0.08] / .427 / 0.03 / [-0.03, 0.09] / .290 / 0.03 / [-0.03, 0.09] / .274 / 0.03 / [-0.02, 0.08] / .278
Cognitive ability / 0.03 / [-0.03, 0.08] / .317 / 0.03 / [-0.02, 0.08] / .287 / -0.01 / [-0.06, 0.04] / .638 / -0.01 / [-0.06, 0.04] / .780 / 0.01 / [-0.04, 0.06] / .749
Personality
Neuroticism / -0.03 / [-0.10, 0.04] / .346 / -0.01 / [-0.08, 0.06] / .777 / -0.02 / [-0.08, 0.05] / .601
Extraversion / 0.98 / [0.03, 0.16] / .003 / 0.08 / [0.01, 0.15] / .025 / 0.07 / [0.00, 0.13] / .037
Openness / -0.13 / [-0.20, -0.07] / .000 / -0.05 / [-0.11, 0.02] / .167 / -0.05 / [-0.11, 0.02] / .134
Agreeableness / -0.10 / [-0.16, -0.03] / .003 / -0.05 / [-0.12, 0.02] / .137 / -0.04 / [-0.11, 0.02] / .170
Conscientiousness / 0.10 / [0.04, 0.17] / .003 / 0.05 / [-0.02, 0.12] / .144 / 0.04 / [-0.03, 0.11] / .249
Interests
Realistic / 0.12 / [0.04, 0.19] / .002 / 0.11 / [0.04, 0.18] / .004 / 0.06 / [0.00, 0.13] / .040
Investigative / -0.01 / [-0.09, 0.05] / .606 / -0.01 / [-0.08, 0.06] / .826 / -0.02 / [-0.08, 0.05] / .633
Artistic / -0.20 / [-0.27, -0.13] / .000 / -0.16 / [-0.23, -0.08] / .000 / -0.10 / [-0.18, -0.03] / .005
Social / -0.13 / [-0.19, -0.06] / .000 / -0.12 / [-0.18, -0.05] / .001 / -0.06 / [-0.13, 0.00] / .053
Enterprising / 0.20 / [0.13, 0.28] / .000 / 0.14 / [0.06, 0.23] / .001 / 0.11 / [0.02, 0.20] / .012
Conventional / 0.00 / [-0.07, 0.08] / .917 / 0.00 / [-0.07, 0.08] / .908 / -0.03 / [-0.10, 0.04] / .388
Full-time employ. / 0.94 / [0.76, 1.13] / .000
R² / .07 / .12 / .15 / .16 / .30
AIC / 158334.08 / 158334.08 / 158334.08 / 158334.08 / 159500.09
SBIC / 158926.93 / 158926.93 / 158926.93 / 158926.93 / 160144.00
Note.N = 3,023; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement; Coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 11. Logistic Regression Models PredictingMarriage
Model 1 / Model 2 / Model 3 / Model 4
Predictors / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p
Controls
Gender (f = 1) / 1.25 / [0.95, 1.65] / .118 / 1.23 / [0.92, 1.65] / .169 / 1.17 / [0.83, 1.66] / .375 / 1.14 / [0.80, 1.62] / .477
Gradea / 1.09 / [0.97, 1.22] / .155 / 1.14 / [1.00, 1.30] / .054 / 1.05 / [0.93, 1.19] / .460 / 1.10 / [0.96, 1.27] / .164
HSES / 0.91 / [0.80, 1.04] / .171 / 0.92 / [0.80, 1.05] / .207 / 0.93 / [0.81, 1.08] / .342 / 0.93 / [0.81, 1.07] / .316
Cognitive ability / 1.10 / [0.97, 1.25] / .145 / 1.12 / [0.98, 1.28] / .099 / 1.09 / [0.96, 1.25] / .188 / 1.12 / [0.98, 1.28] / .105
Personality
Neuroticism / 0.98 / [0.85, 1.13] / .811 / 0.96 / [0.83, 1.11] / .609
Extraversion / 1.01 / [0.89, 1.14] / .901 / 1.04 / [0.90, 1.21] / .589
Openness / 0.90 / [0.79, 1.03] / .113 / 1.02 / [0.85, 1.23] / .809
Agreeableness / 1.09 / [0.95, 1.25] / .205 / 0.97 / [0.83, 1.14] / .609
Conscientiousness / 1.29 / [1.11, 1.50] / .001 / 1.26 / [1.08, 1.48] / .003
Interests
Realistic / 1.13 / [0.97, 1.31] / .130 / 1.13 / [0.97, 1.32] / .123
Investigative / 0.87 / [0.75, 1.02] / .090 / 0.85 / [0.72, 1.00] / .049
Artistic / 0.79 / [0.69, 0.91] / .002 / 0.82 / [0.68,1.00] / .048
Social / 1.41 / [1.20, 1.66] / .000 / 1.42 / [1.19, 1.69] / .000
Enterprising / 0.82 / [0.69, 0.97] / .023 / 0.77 / [0.63, 0.94] / .010
Conventional / 1.29 / [1.08, 1.54] / .004 / 1.23 / [1.03, 1.48] / .025
PSEUDO R² / .01 / .04 / .05 / .06
AIC / 156647.45 / 156645.16 / 156649.06 / 156647.54
SBIC / 157237.46 / 157235.17 / 157239.07 / 157237.55
Note.N = 3,023; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement; Coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 12. Logistic Regression Models PredictingStable Relationship
Model 1 / Model 2 / Model 3 / Model 4
Predictors / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p
Controls
Gender (f = 1) / 1.31 / [1.01, 1.71] / .044 / 1.24 / [0.94, 1.64] / .129 / 1.52 / [1.12, 2.04] / .006 / 1.46 / [1.06, 2.01] / .022
Gradea / 0.97 / [0.85, 1.10] / .621 / 0.95 / [0.83, 1.10] / .509 / 0.98 / [0.85, 1.13] / .758 / 0.96 / [0.82, 1.12] / .582
HSES / 1.03 / [0.91, 1.17] / .639 / 1.03 / [0.91, 1.16] / .664 / 1.03 / [0.91, 1.17] / .660 / 1.03 / [0.91, 1.17] / .626
Cognitive ability / 1.03 / [0.91, 1.17] / .649 / 1.04 / [0.92, 1.18] / .523 / 1.02 / [0.89, 1.17] / .777 / 1.01 / [0.89, 1.16] / .854
Personality
Neuroticism / 1.03 / [0.73, 1.45] / .881 / 1.02 / [0.87, 1.19] / .812
Extraversion / 1.88 / [1.33, 2.67] / .000 / 1.26 / [1.09, 1.47] / .003
Openness / 1.02 / [0.78, 1.33] / .900 / 1.08 / [0.92, 1.27] / .347
Agreeableness / 1.06 / [0.79, 1.43] / .693 / 1.04 / [0.93, 1.16] / .525
Conscientiousness / 1.16 / [0.83, 1.60] / .385 / 1.01 / [0.87, 1.19] / .863
Interests
Realistic / 1.09 / [0.94, 1.26] / .257 / 1.09 / [0.94, 1.26] / .250
Investigative / 1.03 / [0.89, 1.20] / .669 / 1.03 / [0.87, 1.21] / .766
Artistic / 0.86 / [0.75, 0.99] / .029 / 0.85 / [0.72, 1.01] / .068
Social / 1.03 / [0.88, 1.20] / .726 / 1.00 / [0.85, 1.17] / .962
Enterprising / 1.21 / [1.02, 1.43] / .029 / 1.07 / [0.88, 1.29] / .512
Conventional / 0.99 / [0.84, 1.18] / .931 / 1.05 / [0.87, 1.26] / .633
PSEUDO R² / .01 / .03 / .02 / .04
AIC / 130729.97 / 130730.23 / 130732.71 / 156817.40
SBIC / 131319.99 / 131320.24 / 131322.73 / 157407.41
Note.N = 3,023; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement; Coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 13. Logistic Regression Models Predictingwhether a Person HadChildren
Model 1 / Model 2 / Model 3 / Model 4
Predictors / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p
Controls
Gender (f = 1) / 1.67 / [1.24, 2.26] / .001 / 1.63 / [1.18, 2.25] / .003 / 1.36 / [0.96, 1.91] / .083 / 1.32 / [0.93, 1.89] / .123
Gradea / 1.19 / [1.05, 1.36] / .008 / 1.21 / [1.04, 1.39] / .011 / 1.14 / [0.99, 1.31] / .062 / 1.16 / [0.99, 1.34] / .060
HSES / 0.95 / [0.81, 1.11] / .497 / 0.94 / [0.81, 1.10] / .463 / 0.95 / [0.81, 1.11] / .512 / 0.94 / [0.80, 1.11] / .486
Cognitive ability / 1.06 / [0.93, 1.22] / .396 / 1.06 / [0.93, 1.22] / .381 / 1.08 / [0.93, 1.26] / .294 / 1.08 / [0.93, 1.26] / .287
Personality
Neuroticism / 0.95 / [0.81, 1.12] / .567 / 0.93 / [0.79, 1.09] / .350
Extraversion / 1.11 / [0.95, 1.31] / .195 / 1.23 / [1.04, 1.45] / .016
Openness / 1.00 / [0.87, 1.16] / .979 / 1.07 / [0.88, 1.23] / .483
Agreeableness / 1.07 / [0.93, 1.24] / .361 / 0.92 / [0.78, 1.08] / .297
Conscientiousness / 1.11 / [0.96, 1.27] / .156 / 1.13 / [0.98, 1.31] / .092
Interests
Realistic / 1.07 / [0.90, 1.28] / .455 / 1.07 / [0.89, 1.29] / .468
Investigative / 0.89 / [0.75, 1.05] / .163 / 0.87 / [0.72, 1.04] / .122
Artistic / 0.95 / [0.81, 1.13] / .572 / 0.98 / [0.80, 1.20] / .844
Social / 1.46 / [1.23, 1.72] / .000 / 1.48 / [1.24, 1.76] / .000
Enterprising / 0.76 / [0.62, 0.94] / .009 / 0.64 / [0.51, 0.80] / .000
Conventional / 1.23 / [1.02, 1.47] / .027 / 1.28 / [1.06, 1.54] / .011
PSEUDO R² / .03 / .04 / .06 / .08
AIC / 156590.20 / 156590.04 / 156593.96 / 156593.18
SBIC / 157180.22 / 157180.06 / 157183.97 / 157183.19
Note.N = 3,023; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement; Coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 14. Logistic Regression Models Predictingwhether a Person Had Never Had a Relationship
Model 1 / Model 2 / Model 3 / Model 4
Predictors / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p / OR / [95% CI] / p
Controls
Gender (f = 1) / 0.62 / [0.42, 0.91] / .015 / 0.59 / [0.39, 0.88] / .009 / 0.47 / [0.29, 0.75] / .002 / 0.43 / [0.26, 0.72] / .001
Gradea / 0.96 / [0.78, 1.12] / .732 / 1.01 / [0.81, 1.27] / .910 / 0.91 / [0.72, 1.15] / .442 / 0.97 / [0.77, 1.23] / .800
HSES / 0.85 / [0.69, 1.06] / .158 / 0.87 / [0.69, 1.09] / .230 / 0.88 / [0.70, 1.11] / .279 / 0.88 / [0.70, 1.11] / .292
Cognitive ability / 1.02 / [0.84, 1.24] / .869 / 1.02 / [0.83, 1.24] / .884 / 1.01 / [0.82, 1.24] / .945 / 1.05 / [0.85, 1.29] / .660
Personality
Neuroticism / 1.23 / [0.99, 1.53] / .064 / 1.22 / [0.96, 1.53] / .099
Extraversion / 0.62 / [0.51, 0.76] / .000 / 0.71 / [0.57, 0.89] / .002
Openness / 0.91 / [0.75, 1.11] / .369 / 0.87 / [0.67, 1.23] / .288
Agreeableness / 1.12 / [0.90, 1.40] / .314 / 1.00 / [0.80, 1.26] / .978
Conscientiousness / 1.06 / [0.86, 1.31] / .563 / 1.18 / [0.95, 1.48] / .139
Interests
Realistic / 1.00 / [0.79, 1.26] / .984 / 0.99 / [0.78, 1.27] / .959
Investigative / 0.81 / [0.63, 1.04] / .094 / 0.82 / [0.63, 1.07] / .147
Artistic / 1.28 / [0.99, 1.66] / .063 / 1.32 / [0.95, 1.85] / .101
Social / 1.13 / [0.85, 1.50] / .419 / 1.16 / [0.88, 1.54] / .292
Enterprising / 0.51 / [0.38, 0.68] / .000 / 0.64 / [0.46, 0.88] / .006
Conventional / 1.32 / [1.02, 1.72] / .037 / 1.13 / [0.87, 1.48] / .361
PSEUDO R² / .02 / .11 / .10 / .14
AIC / 156030.60 / 156031.55 / 156034.07 / 156032.65
SBIC / 156620.61 / 156621.56 / 156624.09 / 156622.67
Note.N = 3,023; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement; Coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 15. Linear Regression Models PredictingHealth Complaints
Model 1 / Model 2 / Model 3 / Model 4
Predictors / β / [95% CI] / p / β / [95% CI] / p / β / [95% CI] / p / β / [95% CI] / p
Controls
Gender (f = 1) / 0.39 / [0.28, 0.50] / .000 / 0.35 / [0.23, 0.47] / .000 / 0.36 / [0.22, 0.49] / .000 / 0.35 / [0.22, 0.49] / .000
Gradea / 0.07 / [0.00, 0.12] / .019 / 0.07 / [0.01, 0.12] / .031 / 0.07 / [0.01, 0.12] / .025 / 0.06 / [0.00, 0.12] / .048
HSES / -0.08 / [-0.13, -0.03] / .002 / -0.08 / [-0.13, -0.03] / .001 / -0.08 / [-0.13, -0.03] / .001 / -0.08 / [-0.13, -0.03] / .001
Cognitive ability / -0.04 / [-0.10, 0.01] / .127 / -0.03 / [-0.08, 0.02] / .260 / -0.04 / [-0.09, 0.02] / .163 / -0.03 / [-0.08, 0.02] / .303
Personality
Neuroticism / 0.20 / [0.14, 0.26] / .000 / 0.20 / [0.14, 0.26] / .000
Extraversion / -0.05 / [-0.12, 0.01] / .087 / -0.07 / [-0.14, -0.01] / .023
Openness / 0.06 / [0.01, 0.11] / .028 / 0.04 / [-0.02, 0.11] / .188
Agreeableness / -0.11 / [-0.17, -0.06] / .000 / -0.10 / [-0.15, -0.04] / .001
Conscientiousness / -0.04 / [-0.09, 0.02] / .187 / -0.04 / [-0.09, 0.02] / .196
Interests
Realistic / -0.00 / [-0.06, 0.01] / .980 / 0.02 / [-0.04, 0.08] / .529
Investigative / -0.01 / [-0.07, 0.04] / .660 / -0.03 / [-0.09, 0.03] / .309
Artistic / 0.11 / [0.05, 0.18] / .000 / 0.04 / [-0.03, 0.10] / .283
Social / -0.05 / [-0.11, -0.01] / .082 / -0.03 / [-0.09, 0.03] / .346
Enterprising / -0.02 / [-0.09, 0.05] / .590 / 0.06 / [-0.03, 0.14] / .176
Conventional / -0.00 / [-0.07, 0.07] / .979 / -0.02 / [-0.09, 0.05] / .575
R² / .06 / .14 / .07 / .14
AIC / 159034.083 / 159034.083 / 159034.083 / 159034.083
SBIC / 159626.935 / 159626.935 / 159626.935 / 159626.935
Note.N = 3,023; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement; Coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 16. Linear Regression Models PredictingHealth Social Comparison
Model 1 / Model 2 / Model 3 / Model 4
Predictors / β / [95% CI] / p / β / [95% CI] / p / β / [95% CI] / p / β / [95% CI] / p
Controls
Gender (f = 1) / -0.22 / [-0.33, -0.12] / .000 / -0.20 / [-0.30, -0.09] / .000 / -0.14 / [-0.26, -0.02] / .018 / -0.15 / [-0.27, -0.03] / .013
Gradea / -0.01 / [-0.07, 0.04] / .597 / -0.01 / [-0.06, 0.05] / .868 / -0.02 / [-0.08, 0.04] / .522 / -0.01 / [-0.06, 0.06] / .894
HSES / 0.08 / [0.03, 0.14] / .003 / 0.09 / [0.03, 0.14] / .001 / 0.09 / [0.03, 0.14] / .001 / 0.09 / [0.03, 0.14] / .001
Cognitive ability / -0.02 / [-0.07, 0.03] / .478 / -0.03 / [-0.08, 0.03] / .350 / -0.03 / [-0.08, 0.03] / .317 / -0.03 / [-0.09, 0.02] / .255
Personality
Neuroticism / -0.12 / [-0.18, -0.06] / .000 / -0.12 / [-0.18, -0.06] / .000
Extraversion / 0.05 / [-0.01, 0.11] / .104 / 0.05 / [-0.02, 0.12] / .144
Openness / -0.05 / [-0.10, 0.01] / .113 / -0.00 / [-0.08, 0.07] / .907
Agreeableness / 0.05 / [-0.01, 0.10] / .114 / 0.04 / [-0.03, 0.10] / .281
Conscientiousness / 0.08 / [0.02, 0.14] / .013 / 0.08 / [0.01, 0.14] / .020
Interests
Realistic / 0.05 / [-0.02, 0.11] / .148 / 0.04 / [-0.02, 0.10] / .209
Investigative / -0.01 / [-0.08, 0.06] / .808 / -0.01 / [-0.08, 0.07] / .814
Artistic / -0.13 / [-0.19 -0.08] / .000 / -0.09 / [-0.16, -0.02] / .014
Social / 0.04 / [-0.03, 0.10] / .268 / 0.03 / [-0.04, 0.10] / .393
Enterprising / 0.07 / [-0.01, 0.14] / .077 / 0.00 / [-0.09, 0.09] / .941
Conventional / -0.03 / [-0.10, 0.04] / .427 / -0.03 / [-0.10, 0.05] / .522
R² / .02 / .06 / .03 / .07
AIC / 159208.57 / 159208.57 / 159208.57 / 159208.57
SBIC / 159801.43 / 159801.43 / 159801.43 / 159801.43
Note.N = 3,023; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement; Coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 17. Logistic Regression Models Predicting Full-Time Employment
Male / Female / difference
Predictors / ORm / [95% CI] / p / ORf / [95% CI] / p / ORf -ORm / SE / p
Controls
Gradea / 1.07 / [0.78, 1.47] / .683 / 0.91 / [0.76, 1.10] / .328 / -0.16 / 0.20 / .421
HSES / 0.97 / [0.71, 1.31] / .832 / 0.99 / [0.84, 1.16] / .880 / 0.02 / 0.18 / .909
Cognitive ability / 1.11 / [0.82, 1.50] / .489 / 0.86 / [0.73, 1.02] / .085 / -0.25 / 0.18 / .178
Personality
Neuroticism / 1.30 / [0.92, 1.85] / .138 / 1.02 / [0.86, 1.21] / .846 / -0.28 / 0.25 / .248
Extraversion / 1.18 / [0.82, 1.70] / .383 / 1.02 / [0.85, 1.22] / .867 / -0.16 / 0.23 / .486
Openness / 0.86 / [0.59, 1.24] / .412 / 1.11 / [0.89, 1.39] / .353 / 0.25 / 0.21 / .223
Agreeableness / 0.98 / [0.75, 1.29] / .898 / 1.01 / [0.84, 1.21] / .913 / 0.03 / 0.15 / .854
Conscientiousness / 1.19 / [0.86, 1.63] / .292 / 1.12 / [0.94, 1.33] / .219 / -0.07 / 0.22 / .747
Interests
Realistic / 1.65 / [1.10, 2.49] / .015 / 1.26 / [1.00, 1.60] / .052 / -0.39 / 0.35 / .278
Investigative / 1.15 / [0.79, 1.67] / .461 / 1.00 / [0.82, 1.22] / .999 / -0.15 / 0.24 / .524
Artistic / 0.95 / [0.60, 1.51] / .827 / 0.65 / [0.52, 0.80] / .000 / -0.30 / 0.23 / .191
Social / 0.80 / [0.55, 1.17] / .251 / 0.70 / [0.58, 0.86] / .001 / -0.10 / 0.17 / .572
Enterprising / 1.24 / [0.82, 1.88] / .318 / 1.30 / [1.02, 1.65] / .035 / 0.06 / 0.31 / .847
Conventional / 1.51 / [0.96, 2.36] / .074 / 1.08 / [0.88,1.33] / .478 / -0.43 / 0.36 / .233
(PSEUDO) R² / .23 / .11
AIC / 155573.766
SBIC / 156633.916
Note.N = 3,017; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement; coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 18. Logistic Regression Models Predicting Unemployment
Male / Female / difference
Predictors / ORm / [95% CI] / p / ORf / [95% CI] / p / ORf -ORm / SE / p
Controls
Gradea / 1.52 / [1.20, 1.92] / .000 / 1.28 / [1.05, 1.56] / .016 / -0.24 / 0.24 / .318
HSES / 1.04 / [0.84, 1.28] / .719 / 1.02 / [0.85, 1.21] / .869 / -0.02 / 0.14 / .865
Cognitive ability / 0.97 / [0.76, 1.23] / .796 / 0.89 / [0.75, 1.05] / .171 / -0.08 / 0.14 / .565
Personality
Neuroticism / 0.91 / [0.69, 1.20] / .504 / 0.91 / [0.77, 1.09] / .305 / 0.00 / 0.15 / .984
Extraversion / 0.95 / [0.71, 1.28] / .748 / 0.94 / [0.78, 1.14] / .554 / -0.01 / 0.18 / .959
Openness / 0.94 / [0.70, 1.27] / .691 / 1.26 / [1.01, 1.58] / .041 / 0.32 / 0.20 / .102
Agreeableness / 0.73 / [0.58, 0.93] / .012 / 0.87 / [0.72, 1.05] / .146 / 0.14 / 0.13 / .290
Conscientiousness / 0.81 / [0.62, 1.07] / .141 / 0.76 / [0.63, 0.93] / .008 / -0.05 / 0.15 / .746
Interests
Realistic / 0.85 / [0.65, 1.03] / .219 / 0.99 / [0.81, 1.22] / .935 / 0.14 / 0.15 / .348
Investigative / 0.84 / [0.63, 1.11] / .217 / 1.03 / [0.82, 1.29] / .789 / 0.19 / 0.17 / .248
Artistic / 1.46 / [1.03, 2.08] / .035 / 1.17 / [0.91, 1.50] / .228 / -0.29 / 0.29 / .312
Social / 1.10 / [0.82,1.46] / .534 / 0.91 / [0.77, 1.08] / .283 / -0.19 / 0.18 / .311
Enterprising / 0.87 / [0.61, 1.25] / .457 / 1.00 / [0.77, 1.30] / .979 / 0.13 / 0.20 / .520
Conventional / 1.00 / [0.70, 1.42] / .981 / 0.95 / [0.79, 1.14] / .557 / -0.05 / 0.21 / .818
(PSEUDO) R² / .17 / .09
AIC / 155716.092
SBIC / 156776.243
Note.N = 3,017; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement; coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 19. Linear Regression Models Predicting Gross Income
Male / Female / difference
Predictors / βm / [95% CI] / p / βf / [95% CI] / p / βm- βf / SE / p
Controls
Gradea / -0.08 / [-0.18, 0.01] / .083 / -0.18 / [-0.27, -0.10] / .000 / 0.10 / 0.07 / .118
HSES / 0.02 / [-0.06, 0.10] / .669 / 0.04 / [-0.05, 0.12] / .374 / -0.02 / 0.06 / .744
Cognitive ability / -0.01 / [-0.09, 0.07] / .822 / -0.01 / [-0.09, 0.06] / .703 / 0.00 / 0.06 / .926
Personality
Neuroticism / 0.02 / [-0.08, 0.12] / .686 / -0.04 / [-0.13, 0.05] / .425 / 0.06 / 0.07 / .400
Extraversion / 0.10 / [-0.02, 0.22] / .107 / 0.07 / [-0.01, 0.15] / .088 / 0.03 / 0.08 / .706
Openness / -0.04 / [-0.16, 0.09] / .571 / -0.05 / [-0.14, 0.03] / .196 / 0.01 / 0.08 / .809
Agreeableness / -0.01 / [-0.10, 0.09] / .897 / -0.09 / [-0.19, 0.02] / .113 / 0.08 / 0.08 / .288
Conscientiousness / 0.02 / [-0.08, 0.12] / .709 / 0.07 / [-0.02, 0.16] / .124 / -0.05 / 0.07 / .445
Interests
Realistic / 0.13 / [0.06, 0.20] / .000 / 0.08 / [-0.03, 0.20] / .147 / 0.05 / 0.06 / .461
Investigative / -0.02 / [-0.11, 0.07] / .645 / -0.01 / [-0.11, 0.10] / .918 / -0.01 / 0.07 / .815
Artistic / -0.14 / [-0.25, -0.03] / .016 / -0.16 / [-0.25, -0.06] / .001 / 0.02 / 0.08 / .824
Social / -0.18 / [-0.29, -0.07] / .002 / -0.09 / [-0.18, 0.00] / .054 / -0.09 / 0.08 / .225
Enterprising / 0.17 / [0.03, 0.30] / .014 / 0.12 / [-0.00, 0.24] / .054 / 0.05 / 0.09 / .601
Conventional / 0.02 / [-0.11, 0.16] / .717 / 0.01 / [-0.09, 0.10] / .909 / 0.01 / 0.08 / .819
(PSEUDO) R² / .11 / .13
AIC / 157339.688
SBIC / 158402.674
Note.N = 3,017; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement; coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 20. Logistic Regression Models Predicting Marriage
Male / Female / difference
Predictors / ORm / [95% CI] / p / ORf / [95% CI] / p / ORf -ORm / SE / p
Controls
Gradea / 1.06 / [0.85, 1.32] / .628 / 1.12 / [0.93, 1.36] / .237 / 0.06 / 0.17 / .701
HSES / 0.85 / [0.66, 1.10] / .217 / 0.97 / [0.82, 1.15] / .745 / 0.12 / 0.14 / .387
Cognitive ability / 1.13 / [0.89, 1.45] / .309 / 1.10 / [0.92, 1.31] / .281 / -0.03 / 0.18 / .858
Personality
Neuroticism / 0.93 / [0.72, 1.20] / .566 / 0.97 / [0.80, 1.18] / .773 / 0.04 / 0.16 / .776
Extraversion / 0.98 / [0.74, 1.30] / .876 / 1.08 / [0.88, 1.33] / .464 / 0.10 / 0.20 / .602
Openness / 1.04 / [0.76, 1.41] / .815 / 1.03 / [0.81, 1.32] / .811 / -0.01 / 0.21 / .974
Agreeableness / 1.03 / [0.81, 1.31] / .803 / 0.93 / [0.74, 1.16] / .518 / -0.10 / 0.16 / .536
Conscientiousness / 1.23 / [0.96, 1.59] / .103 / 1.26 / [1.03, 1.54] / .025 / 0.03 / 0.21 / .896
Interests
Realistic / 1.31 / [1.00, 1.72] / .048 / 1.00 / [0.81, 1.23] / .997 / -0.31 / 0.22 / .157
Investigative / 0.77 / [0.59, 1.01] / .063 / 0.88 / [0.72, 1.09] / .243 / 0.11 / 0.15 / .447
Artistic / 0.85 / [0.57, 1.27] / .418 / 0.83 / [0.67, 1.03] / .094 / -0.02 / 0.19 / .930
Social / 1.31 / [0.97, 1.78] / .075 / 1.48 / [1.17, 1.88] / .001 / 0.17 / 0.28 / .544
Enterprising / 1.01 / [0.73, 1.40] / .935 / 0.65 / [0.51, 0.84] / .001 / -0.36 / 0.19 / .054
Conventional / 0.98 / [0.72, 1.33] / .887 / 1.42 / [1.15, 1.77] / .001 / 0.44 / 0.20 / .029
R² / .06 / .08
AIC / 155661.056
SBIC / 156721.207
Note.N = 3,017; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement; coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 21. Logistic Regression Models Predictinga Stable Relationship
Male / Female / difference
Predictors / ORm / [95% CI] / p / ORf / [95% CI] / p / ORf -ORm / SE / p
Controls
Gradea / 0.95 / [0.76, 1.19] / .655 / 0.95 / [0.78, 1.16] / .623 / 0.00 / 0.14 / .987
HSES / 1.07 / [0.88, 1.29] / .506 / 1.03 / [0.87, 1.22] / .720 / -0.04 / 0.14 / .795
Cognitive ability / 0.98 / [0.81, 1.19] / .826 / 1.03 / [0.87, 1.23] / .715 / 0.05 / 0.13 / .679
Personality
Neuroticism / 1.02 / [0.81, 1.29] / .857 / 1.03 / [0.86, 1.25] / .728 / 0.01 / 0.15 / .934
Extraversion / 1.28 / [0.99, 1.66] / .064 / 1.27 / [1.05, 1.54] / .016 / -0.01 / 0.22 / .961
Openness / 1.44 / [1.14, 1.83] / .002 / 0.85 / [0.68, 1.06] / .150 / -0.59 / 0.19 / .002
Agreeableness / 1.00 / [0.83, 1.21] / .973 / 1.08 / [0.90, 1.29] / .393 / 0.08 / 0.15 / .598
Conscientiousness / 1.02 / [0.82, 1.29] / .837 / 1.02 / [0.83, 1.25] / .887 / -0.00 / 0.15 / .952
Interests
Realistic / 1.05 / [0.87, 1.27] / .623 / 1.22 / [0.96, 1.54] / .109 / 0.17 / 0.18 / .344
Investigative / 0.98 / [0.76, 1.26] / .883 / 1.05 / [0.85, 1.31] / .640 / 0.07 / 0.17 / .665
Artistic / 0.77 / [0.57, 1.03] / .081 / 0.97 / [0.78, 1.21] / .788 / 0.20 / 0.16 / .206
Social / 0.83 / [0.61, 1.12] / .217 / 1.10 / [0.94, 1.33] / .352 / 0.27 / 0.17 / .103
Enterprising / 1.18 / [0.86, 1.62] / .307 / 1.05 / [0.84, 1.37] / .716 / -0.13 / 0.24 / .592
Conventional / 0.83 / [0.62, 1.12] / .222 / 1.20 / [0.94, 1.54] / .148 / 0.37 / 0.20 / .062
(PSEUDO) R² / .06 / .06
AIC / 155805.632
SBIC / 156865.782
Note.N = 3,017; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement; coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 22. Logistic Regression Models PredictingHaving Children
Male / Female / difference
Predictors / ORm / [95% CI] / p / ORf / [95% CI] / p / ORf -ORm / SE / p
Controls
Gradea / 0.85 / [0.67, 1.09] / .194 / 1.33 / [1.09, 1.61] / .004 / 0.48 / 0.17 / .005
HSES / 1.06 / [0.78, 1.45] / .701 / 0.90 / [0.75, 1.08] / .249 / -0.16 / 0.18 / .374
Cognitive ability / 1.03 / [0.79, 1.35] / .812 / 1.09 / [0.90, 1.31] / .389 / 0.06 / 0.18 / .776
Personality
Neuroticism / 1.14 / [0.89, 1.46] / .296 / 0.83 / [0.67, 1.03] / .090 / -0.31 / 0.17 / .068
Extraversion / 1.72 / [1.23, 2.42] / .002 / 1.05 / [0.85, 1.30] / .627 / -0.67 / 0.33 / .045
Openness / 1.53 / [1.06, 2.02] / .024 / 0.88 / [0.70, 1.10] / .248 / -0.65 / 0.30 / .029
Agreeableness / 0.87 / [0.67, 1.36] / .308 / 0.95 / [0.77, 1.19] / .675 / 0.08 / 0.16 / .619
Conscientiousness / 1.09 / [0.84, 1.41] / .523 / 1.18 / [0.96, 1.45] / .114 / 0.09 / 0.21 / .650
Interests
Realistic / 1.13 / [0.84, 1.51] / .426 / 1.09 / [0.86, 1.40] / .470 / -0.04 / 0.21 / .885
Investigative / 0.73 / [0.55, 0.98] / .037 / 0.91 / [0.72, 1.15] / .428 / 0.18 / 0.15 / .241
Artistic / 1.07 / [0.71, 1.63] / .741 / 1.02 / [0.79, 1.32] / .866 / -0.05 / 0.27 / .849
Social / 1.24 / [0.87, 1.77] / .236 / 1.50 / [1.20, 1.89] / .000 / 0.26 / 0.29 / .369
Enterprising / 0.62 / [0.41, 0.94] / .023 / 0.67 / [0.50, 0.88] / .005 / 0.05 / 0.17 / .765
Conventional / 1.01 / [0.68, 1.49] / .979 / 1.37 / [1.10, 1.71] / .005 / 0.36 / 0.26 / .159
(PSEUDO) R² / .14 / .10
AIC / 155579.202
SBIC / 156639.353
Note.N = 3,017; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement; coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 23. Logistic Regression Models PredictingNever Having Had a Relationship
Male / Female / difference
Predictors / ORm / [95% CI] / p / ORf / [95% CI] / p / ORf -ORm / SE / p
Controls
Gradea / 0.93 / [0.67, 1.30] / .673 / 1.05 / [0.75, 1.46] / .773 / 0.12 / 0.23 / .608
HSES / 0.75 / [0.55, 1.02] / .064 / 0.98 / [0.71, 1.37] / .921 / 0.23 / 0.20 / .239
Cognitive ability / 1.10 / [0.79, 1.53] / .568 / 1.04 / [0.79, 1.38] / .771 / -0.06 / 0.23 / .803
Personality
Neuroticism / 1.07 / [0.70, 1.63] / .761 / 1.25 / [0.94, 1.66] / .120 / 0.18 / 0.31 / .546
Extraversion / 0.86 / [0.64, 1.17] / .332 / 0.59 / [0.42, 0.83] / .003 / -0.268 / 0.17 / .115
Openness / 0.69 / [0.48, 1.01] / .054 / 1.12 / [0.77, 1.62] / .560 / 0.426 / 0.26 / .099
Agreeableness / 1.07 / [0.83, 1.37] / .620 / 0.95 / [0.69, 1.31] / .750 / -0.117 / 0.20 / .550
Conscientiousness / 1.17 / [0.84, 1.64] / .361 / 1.13 / [0.83, 1.54] / .447 / -0.040 / 0.27 / .881
Interests
Realistic / 0.86 / [0.62, 1.20] / .387 / 0.96 / [0.63, 1.47] / .852 / 0.10 / 0.25 / .699
Investigative / 0.97 / [0.68, 1.39] / .867 / 0.76 / [0.54, 1.09] / .133 / -0.21 / 0.21 / .331
Artistic / 1.24 / [0.75, 2.05] / .398 / 1.19 / [0.80, 1.77] / .385 / -0.05 / 0.37 / .894
Social / 1.38 / [0.88, 2.17] / .158 / 1.05 / [0.76, 1.46] / .761 / -0.33 / 0.34 / .334
Enterprising / 0.43 / [0.27, 0.70] / .001 / 0.74 / [0.47, 1.18] / .211 / 0.31 / 0.21 / .128
Conventional / 2.08 / [1.27, 3.41] / .004 / 0.77 / [0.52, 1.14] / .187 / -1.31 / 0.55 / .018
(PSEUDO) R² / .20 / .21
AIC / 155017.123
SBIC / 156077.273
Note.N = 3,017; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement; coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 24. Linear Regression Models Predicting Health Complaints
Male / Female / difference
Predictors / βm / [95% CI] / p / βf / [95% CI] / p / βm- βf / SE / p
Controls
Gradea / 0.01 / [-0.07, 0.09] / .810 / 0.10 / [0.02, 0.18] / .016 / -0.09 / 0.05 / .098
HSES / 0.02 / [-0.06, 0.10] / .618 / -0.15 / [-0.21, -0.09] / .000 / 0.17 / 0.05 / .001
Cognitive ability / -0.04 / [-0.13, 0.04] / .284 / -0.01 / [-0.08, 0.06] / .762 / -0.03 / 0.06 / .543
Personality
Neuroticism / 0.13 / [0.03, 0.22] / .011 / 0.24 / [0.17, 0.32] / .000 / -0.11 / 0.06 / .067
Extraversion / -0.11 / [-0.21, -0.01] / .038 / -0.05 / [-0.12, 0.03] / .224 / -0.06 / 0.06 / .339
Openness / 0.06 / [-0.05, 0.17] / .318 / 0.06 / [-0.03, 0.14] / .220 / 0.00 / 0.08 / .990
Agreeableness / -0.02 / [-0.09, 0.06] / .649 / -0.16 / [-0.23, -0.08] / .000 / 0.14 / 0.06 / .010
Conscientiousness / -0.10 / [-0.18, -0.03] / .007 / 0.02 / [-0.06, 0.09] / .710 / -0.12 / 0.06 / .034
Interests
Realistic / 0.01 / [-0.08, 0.10] / .833 / 0.04 / [-0.05, 0.13] / .382 / -0.03 / 0.06 / .636
Investigative / -0.07 / [-0.18, 0.03] / .166 / -0.01 / [-0.08, 0.06] / .774 / -0.06 / 0.06 / .336
Artistic / -0.05 / [-0.17, 0.08] / .462 / 0.07 / [-0.02, 0.16] / .139 / -0.12 / 0.08 / .149
Social / -0.04 / [-0.14, 0.07] / .506 / 0.00 / [-0.08, 0.09] / .935 / -0.04 / 0.07 / .592
Enterprising / 0.04 / [-0.09, 0.17] / .559 / 0.05 / [-0.05, 0.16] / .308 / -0.01 / 0.08 / .851
Conventional / 0.01 / [-0.10, 0.12] / .874 / -0.03 / [-0.12, 0.06] / .489 / 0.04 / 0.07 / .584
R² / .07 / .16
AIC / 158015.149
SBIC / 159078.134
Note.N = 3,017; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement; coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Table 25. Linear Regression Models Predicting Health as a Social Comparison
Male / Female / difference
Predictors / βm / [95% CI] / p / βf / [95% CI] / p / βm- βf / SE / p
Controls
Gradea / 0.04 / [-0.04, 0.13] / .314 / -0.06 / [-0.14, 0.03] / .174 / 0.10 / 0.06 / .084
HSES / 0.10 / [0.02, 0.17] / .015 / 0.08 / [0.01, 0.14] / .031 / 0.02 / 0.05 / .689
Cognitive ability / -0.01 / [-0.10, 0.08] / .765 / -0.05 / [-0.13, 0.02] / .173 / 0.04 / 0.06 / .537
Personality
Neuroticism / -0.11 / [-0.21, -0.01] / .039 / -0.12 / [-0.20, -0.04] / .005 / 0.01 / 0.07 / .881
Extraversion / 0.04 / [-0.07, 0.16] / .441 / 0.06 / [-0.03, 0.15] / .205 / -0.02 / 0.07 / .856
Openness / 0.02 / [-0.11, 0.14] / .807 / -0.02 / [-0.11, 0.07] / .686 / 0.04 / 0.08 / .653
Agreeableness / 0.06 / [-0.03, 0.15] / .174 / 0.02 / [-0.07, 0.11] / .670 / 0.04 / 0.06 / .472
Conscientiousness / 0.07 / [-0.03, 0.17] / .174 / 0.09 / [0.01, 0.17] / .033 / -0.02 / 0.06 / .735
Interests
Realistic / -0.02 / [-0.11, 0.07] / .696 / 0.10 / [0.01, 0.19] / .038 / -0.12 / 0.07 / .073
Investigative / 0.03 / [-0.08, 0.14] / .609 / -0.04 / [-0.14, 0.06] / .432 / 0.07 / 0.07 / .360
Artistic / -0.05 / [-0.17, 0.08] / .470 / -0.11 / [-0.19, -0.03] / .009 / 0.06 / 0.07 / .381
Social / -0.01 / [-0.12, 0.10] / .914 / 0.05 / [-0.04, 0.13] / .304 / -0.06 / 0.07 / .433
Enterprising / 0.02 / [-0.14, 0.17] / .850 / -0.01 / [-0.12, 0.10] / .830 / 0.03 / 0.09 / .777
Conventional / -0.00 / [-0.13, 0.13] / .978 / -0.05 / [-0.14, 0.05] / .363 / 0.05 / 0.08 / .612
R² / .05 / .07
AIC / 158209.741
SBIC / 159272.726
Note.N = 3,017; a Lower final grade indicates higher achievement; coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < .05, two-tailed).
Males / Females
VAF = .92 / VAF = .67
Figure 1: Circular unidimensional scaling results for the male (left) and female (right) subsample.