A summary of

“The Japanese Model of Professional Development: Teaching as Craft”

by N. Ken Shimahara (1998).

written by Mitsue Uemura

This paper discusses Japanese teacher professional development strategies. What makes Japanese strategies unique is that they are driven by a peer-based model that encourages professional development through peer collaboration, planning, and management. Japanese professional development is embedded in a social context in which peer teachers are committed to creating and regenerating “craft knowledge” of teaching. As a customary notion, craft is understood as representing an apprenticeship through which occupational practice from the past is perpetuated. The paper explores how the Japanese perspective of teaching as craft contributes to professional development primarily at the elementary level.

Craft Knowledge

Craft knowledge of teaching is considered as “pedagogical content knowledge,” which is a “special amalgam of content and pedagogy that is uniquely the province of teachers, their own special form of professional understanding”. This knowledge stems from professionally unique experiences-classroom-based practices. Craft knowledge is sensible, experientially grounded know-how constructed by teachers to deal with evolving events in the classroom. Teaching as craft involves reflective practice. Craft knowledge of teaching is embedded in reflection-in-action and represents artistry in an important respect. It derives from practitioners’ understanding of teaching situations.

Teaching as Craft in Japan

Japan’s current paradigm for professional development consists of formal preparation for teaching leading to initial certification, opportunities for inservice education, and graduate level education to enhance professional competencies. what characterizes professional development in Japan is the fact that formal teacher preparation provides only minimal grounding in teaching. In contrast, professional development opportunities for inservice teachers are plentiful throughout their careers. The Japanese model of professional development emerged from both government policy and independent teacher initiatives for professional development. Teacher preparation is critical for Japanese teachers to maintain and promote professional standards.

Postwar Background

A review of the background of postwar teacher education helps understand the limited role that universities have played in preparing teachers.

Late 1940s:

In 1947, based on the recommendations presented by the American Mission of Education, Japan underwent drastic school reforms creating a new system. Teacher training conducted at prewar normal schools was replaced by university-based education with emphasis on liberal arts education. What is called an open-certification system was established, where colleges and universities could participate in teacher education without direct control by the Ministry of Education (MOE). Under this new system, requirements for certification were minimal.

1950s:

The education reforms introduced in the late 1940s came under intense fire, and consequently many of the reforms were altered by the conservative government. Thus, the MOE began to assume greater control of not only teachers but also teacher education. Since this period of time, the MOE frequently sought recommendations from its advisory councils, the Central Council of Education and the Council on Teacher Education. These advisory councils recommended inservice education for teachers, internships for beginning teachers, the creation of teachers colleges, and reforms of certification standards, which were unmet until 1970s.

1970s:

A newly framed reform initiative was to make teaching attractive by increasing teachers’ salaries, resulting in a supporting legislative measure in 1974. Graduate schools were established and inservice education for public school teachers at the education centers was started.

1980s:

A one-year internship program for all beginning public school teachers throughout the country was established. The school reform in this period included reforms of certification standards, raising requirements for certification and differentiating them into three classes: initial, standards, and advanced. Another change in certification system is an increase in required professional studies for all types of certification, with emphasis on student guidance, classroom management, and information technology.

Learning Craft Knowledge of Teaching

The concept of inservice education developed in Japan extensively draws upon peers as the major resources to organize program and is largely predicted upon several assumptions.

Assumptions:

  1. Teaching is a collaborative process and it is improved throughout that process.
  2. Peer planning is a critical aspect of teaching.
  3. Peer participation characterized by the active engagement of teachers in a variety of school activities is an indispensable element of teaching and schooling.

Inservice Education

Several type of inservice education:

  1. In-house inservice education (offered by school). A study promotion committee is formed, which is in charge of developing an inservice program consisting of several teachers representing different grade levels, including the director of academic program and the principal ex officio. The committee drafts a yearly study plan, which is presented to grade-level groups of teachers for discussion and suggestions. The program consists of demonstration classes, observed by the entire staff and an invited guest with expertise in the subject of the lesson.
  1. Out-of-school inservice programs organized by subject-area associations of teachers. The associations at the elementary and secondary levels are formed in each city or ward in which each school is represented. Demonstration classes are rotated among schools to which association’ members are invited
  1. Teacher-initiated, voluntary networks designed to promote teaching. Networks are independent associations committed to a shared purpose: promoting teaching, independent of government control. They hold conferences and workshops and publish magazines sold at commercial bookstores to disseminate information about their innovative ideas and practices to teachers throughout the country.
  1. One-year mandatory internship program for all beginning public school teachers. The program consists of 3 components: in-house inservice education under the supervision of a mentor, a program of about 20 lectures and workshops, and retreats and summer workshops.
  1. Inservice education programs sponsored by the government at national inservice education centers and prefectural and municipal education centers: The programs enroll public school teachers at various career stages: beginning year, 5th year, 10th year, administrative level, and so on. The programs rely on peer resources.

Craft Knowledge Embedded in Teachers’ Lives

How teaching as craft is embedded in a broad context of Japanese teachers’ lives.

Six common themes in elementary teachers’ lives that significantly influence their professional development in teaching as craft.

  1. Senior colleagues.
  2. Supportive environment: supports from experienced teachers.
  3. Critical events: events defined in the context of personal experience, which augmented teachers’ professional development by encouraging, and enhanced confidence.
  4. Networking with teachers from other schools.
  5. Assumption of roles: changes that occur in teachers’ roles during their life course, since teachers in Japan periodically transferred to different schools.
  6. Inservice education.

Critical Issues

There are some problems that constrain the Japanese practice of professional development, resulting from the fact that teacher development is enhanced within the framework of the culture of teaching.

  1. Teacher development is grounded, in essence, in the shared ethos that skills, knowledge, and the frame of orientation requisite for teaching are intrinsic to the culture of teaching. The Japanese model of professional development is impeded by the fact that the wisdom of accumulated reflective practice is little codified and formulated into a body of knowledge that can be tested and refined through research.
  2. Universities and schools are not closely connected with each other. Thus, Japanese universities play a limited role in teacher preparation, and teachers’ ability to attain graduate education is limited.
  3. Intensification of teacher labor occurs in the context of teachers’ inclusive and regulated work, which stems from cooperative school management. Inservice education and teacher networking contribute to the intensification of teacher labor, because they normally constitute an additional dimension of work.
  4. Japanese teachers have little autonomy, largely because of the highly uniform national curriculum, which has contributed to the lack of professionalism of teachers.

A Final Note

The Japanese perspective of teaching as craft has limitations (above), and the challenge of Japanese teachers and reformers is to find ways of addressing the problems that constrain it.