I)Energy
A)______is capacity to do work; cells must continually use energy to do biological work.
B)______is energy of motion; all moving objects have kinetic energy.
C)______is stored energy.
1)Water behind a dam has potential energy that can be converted to kinetic energy.
2)Energy within an atom lies in arrangement of its atoms in molecule; glucose has more energy than its breakdown components, carbon dioxide and water.
II)Two Laws of Thermodynamics
A)First law of thermodynamics (also called the ______)
1)Energy cannot be ______; it can be changed from one form to another.
2)In an engine, chemical energy of coal converts to heat; heat energy converts to ______.
3)In human body, chemical energy in food is converted to chemical energy in ______and then converted to mechanical energy of muscle contraction.
B)Second law of thermodynamics
1)Energy cannot be changed from one form into another without a ______.
2)______of chemical energy of gasoline is converted to move a car; rest is lost as heat.
3)When muscles convert chemical energy in ATP to mechanical energy, some is lost as heat.
4)Heat is form of energy but quickly ______into the environment; because heat dissipates, it can never be converted back to the form of ______.
III)Entropy
A)Entropy is measure of ______.
1)Organized usable forms of energy have low entropy; unorganized/less stable forms have ______.
2)Energy conversions result in heat and therefore the entropy of the universe is ______.
3)It takes a constant input of usable energy from the food you eat to keep you ______.
IV)Metabolism
A)Sum of all the ______in a cell.
1)In a reaction A + B C + D, A and B are______and C and D are ______.
2)______() is the amount of energy that is free to do work after a chemical reaction.
3)Change in free energy is noted as ; a negative means that products have ______than reactants; the reaction occurs spontaneously.
4)______have a negative and ______.
5)______have a positive ; products have more energy than reactants; such reactions can only occur with an input of energy.
6)______have a free energy difference near zero; such a reaction is at ______.
7)Cells use product of a first reaction as reactant in second reaction; such a process pulls ______in one direction.
V)Coupled Reactions
A)Occur when energy released by an ______reaction is used to drive an e______reaction.
1)Energy released from ______ ADP + is used to fuel many biological reactions.
2)ATP breakdown is coupled to a reaction that requires energy; both reactions take place at ______
3)When ATP breaks down to drive reactions, some ______; overall reaction becomes ______.
VI)ATP: Energy for Cells
A)ATP (______) is ______; when cells require energy, they "spend" ATP.
1)Great demand for ATP requires body to constantly produce ATP.
2)Small amount of ATP is constantly______from ADP and — it is continually made, broken down, and remade in cells.
3)The energy released from ATP______is just about enough for most biological reactions.
VII)Function of ATP
A)______ATP supplies energy to synthesize ______that make up the cell.
B)______ATP supplies energy needed to ______substances across the plasma membrane.
C)______: ATP supplies energy to move muscles, cilia and flagella, chromosomes, etc.
VIII)Structure of ATP
A)ATP is a nucleotide made of ______
B)ATP is called a "______" compound because a phosphate group is easily removed.
C)In cells, about ______mole is released when ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP +
IX)Reactions in Cells are Orderly
A)______are orderly sequence of chemical reactions; each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme.
B)Metabolic pathways begin with particular reactant, end with end product, and have many in ______.
C)One pathway leads to next; since pathways use same molecules, a pathway can lead to several others.
D)Metabolic energy is captured more easily if it is released in ______.
E)A ______is substance that participates in reaction; a ______is substance formed by reaction.
F)Each step in a series of chemical reactions is assisted by an ______
G)______are catalysts that speed chemical reactions without the enzyme being changed.
H)Every enzyme is specific in its action and catalyzes only one reaction or one type of reaction.
I)A ______is a reactant in an enzymatic reaction.
X)Energy of Activation
A)For metabolic reactions to occur in a cell, an enzyme must usually be present.
1)Without enzymes, activation is achieved by heating reaction flask to increase ______.
2)______(Ea) is energy that must be added to cause molecules to react.
XI)Enzyme-Substrate Complexes
A)Enzymes speed chemical reactions by lowering the energy of activation (Ea) by forming a ______with their substrate(s) at the active site.
1)______is small region on surface of enzyme where the substrate(s) bind.
2)When substrate binds to enzyme, active site undergoes a slight change shape that facilitates the reaction — this is called the ______.
3)Only a small amount of enzyme is needed in a cell because ______
4)Some enzymes actually ______in the reaction (e.g. trypsin).
5)A particular reactant(s) may produce more than one type ______
6) Presence or absence of enzyme determines which reaction takes place.
7)If reactants can form more than one product, enzymes present determine product produced.
8)Every cell reaction requires its specific enzyme; enzymes are named for substrates by adding "-______."
XII)Factors Affecting Enzymatic Speed
A)Enzymatic reactions are rapid (e.g., 2H2O2 H2O + O2 occurs 600,000 times/sec with ______).
1)To achieve maximum product per unit time, need enough substrate t______.
2)Optimal ______and ______increase rates of enzymatic reaction.
3)Temperature and pH
(a)As temperature rises, enzyme activity increases because there are more ______.
(b)Enzye activity declines rapidly when enzyme is ______at a certain temperature; results in change in shape of enzyme.
(c)Each enzyme has ______that maintains its normal configuration.
(d)A change in pH alters ionization of side chains, eventually resulting in ______
4)Enzyme Concentration
(a)Enzyme concentration is regulated by a cell.
(b)Some enzymes regulated by ______; molecules received by membrane receptors turn on ______which activate enzymes by ______them.
5)Enzyme Inhibition
- ______is common means by which cells regulate enzyme
- In ______, another molecule is similar to enzymes substrate, competes with true substrate for enzyme’s active site, resulting in decreased product formation.
- In ______, a molecule binds to ______, a site other than active site, hereby changing the three-dimensional structure of enzyme and ability to bind to its substrate.
- ______regulates activity of most enzymes; product produced by an enzyme binds to enzyme’s active site.
- When product is abundant, active sites are full and ______
- When product is used up, inhibition is reduced and more product is produced.
- Concentrations of products can be kept within ______.
- Pathways can be regulated by feedback inhibition; end product of pathway binds at an ______on the first enzyme of the pathway, shutting down the pathway.
- ______inhibits an essential enzyme (cytochrome oxidase) found in all cells.
6)Enzyme Cofactors
- Many enzymes require an inorganic ion or non-protein ______to function.
- Ions are metals; the organic cofactors are ______(e.g. ______) that assist enzymes or accept or contribute atoms to the reaction.
- Vitamins required in ______for synthesis of coenzymes; become part of coenzyme’s molecular structure; vitamin deficiency causes lack of ______and lace of enzyme action