Year 13 Study Guide and NCEA Essay Questions
INTRODUCTION: pg.4
Ethnic origins of Macedonian People
Political developments in the Greek world
The Persian Invasion
Macedonian emergence to power 4th century BC
SOURCES FOR ALEXANDER THE GREAT – historiography pg.6
The primary sources – the Lost Works
The secondary sources
REIGN OF PHILIP II AND ACCESSION OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT pg.6
Philip’s reign 359-336BC
The Corinthian League
The Murder of Philip
The murder
How/why are Olympias and Alexander implicated in the murder of Philip?
ALEXANDER KING OF MACEDON AND HEGEMON AND STRATEGOS OF THE CORINTHIAN LEAGUE pg.11
Alexander’s relationship with the Greeks
Alexander and the League of Corinth
The first of the Greek rebellions 335BC
Second rebellion of the Greek states
Theban rebellion Spring 335BC
Alexander and Athens
Greek rebellions 333 – 332 BC
Exiles Decree 324 BC
Summary of Alexander’s relationship with the Greeks
ALEXANDER’S MILITARY CONQUESTS AND LEADERSHIP pg.17
Alexander – a military genius
Preparing for war in the east
ALEXANDER’S ARMY pg.18
Alexander in Asia Minor
Alexander’s army
Persia on the eve of Alexander’s invasion
The Persian army of Asia Minor
Battle of Granicus 334BC
Significance of the Granicus victory
The aftermath of Granicus
Ionian cities of Asia Minor 334 BC
Battle of Issus (November 333 BC)
Significance of the victory for Alexander
Darius asks for the return of the royal and noble ladies
Darius’ first request
Darius’ second request
PHOENICIA pg.26
Phoenician cities 332 BC
Siege of Tyre, January – August 332 BC
Gaza
Egypt 332 - 331 BC
Alexandria 331 BC
CONQUEST OF MESOPOTAMIA pg.29
Battle of Gaugamela (end of 331 BC)
MILITARY CONQUESTS AFTER THE BATTLE OF GAUGAMELA pg.31
AFTER THE BATTLE pg.31
Babylon 331 BC
Reorganisation of Army
Battle at the Persian Gates
Persepolis 330 BC
New Appointments
Murder of Darius 330 BC
Pursuing murderers of Darius 330 – 328 BC, dealing with internal conflict
THE INDIAN EXPEDITION 327 BC pg.34
The Kingdom of Porus and the Battle of Jhelum (Spring, 326 BC)
Sailing down the Indus (late 326 BC)
Mallian and Oxydracaean tribes (325 BC)
Summary of Alexander’s military conquests
ALEXANDER’S RELATIONSHIP WITH THE MACEDONIANS AND PERSIANS pg.38
Alexander’s relationship with the Macedonians
Problems caused by the policy of fusion
Conspiracy of Philotas 330 – 329 BC
Mutiny by the river Hyphasis 326 BC
Journey through Gedrosia 325 BC
Macedonian Generals of Media 324 BC
Persis early 324 BC
Festivities in Susa
Weddings in Susa 324 BC
Mesopotamia, middle of 324 BC
Summary of Alexander’s relationship with the Macedonians and Persians
ALEXANDER’S RELIGIOUS VIEWS AND THE USE OF PROPAGANDA pg.50
Alexander’s divinity
Alexander’s religious views (and the use of propaganda)
Troy (Spring 334 BC)
Egypt 332 – 331 BC
Babylon, Spring 323 BC
Other examples of Alexander’s use of propaganda
Summary of Alexander’s religious views and the use of propaganda
ALEXANDER’S DEATH 323 BC pg.54
Tarsus 33 BC
Hephaestion’s death at Ecbatana 324 BC
Alexander’s death 323 BC
NCEA ESSAY QUESTIONS
Introduction
Ethnic origins of Macedonian people
The Macedonian population was a mixture of Greek Macedonian (lowlanders) and barbaric people, i.e. foreigners such as Illyrian and Peonian people (highlanders).
The capital of Macedonia at first was Aegae, later Pella.
Political developments in the Greek world
Greece as we know it today did not exist in the 4th century BC. It was divided into several city states (poleis), e.g. Athens, Sparta, Thebes. These states were totally independent and often in conflict with each other. The people of these states shared a common language, religion, and culture, but they had different political systems.
Fig. 9.2: Macedonia and states ruled by Macedonia
The Persian invasion
Persia invaded the Greek states several times - successfully in 388-387 BC. The Persian king Artaxerxes (the Great King) forced the Greek states to accept 'the King's peace'. According to this, Persia had supreme control over all the defeated Greek city states; i.e. they were answerable to Persia and had to contribute money and armies to Persia on demand.
On the Greek mainland, city states were allowed to be autonomous (make decisions about their internal affairs), but in Asia Minor city states were ruled by Persian satraps (governors).
Sparta was to be the enforcer of the peace in Greece.
Macedonian emergence to power 4th century BC
The Persian Empire failed to defeat Macedonia, so while the other Greek states were under Persian rule, Macedonia emerged as a powerful leading state.
The leader of Macedonia at the time (359-336 BC) was Philip II, father of Alexander the Great.
Sources for Alexander the Great - historiography
Many of Alexander's contemporaries wrote about him but their works are lost. Five books based on the 'lost works', written centuries after Alexander's death, survive today: These books often name their sources and at times quote them, so the authors of the lost works are known.
The primary sources -the lost Works
Historians
· Callisthenes - Alexander's official Greek historian and nephew. Employed by Alexander to record events as they happened.
· Cleitarchus. Greek contemporary of Alexander. Did not accompany Alexander on his expedition to the east yet produced the most popular account -sensationalised events.
The literary writers
· Ptolemy - a Macedonian. One of Alexander's close friends and chief generals. Wrote an invaluable account of military operations. His treatment of leading men in Alexander's army is untrustworthy -glorified his own achievements and minimised achievements of others.
· Nearchus - a Greek. Close friend of Alexander. Became admiral. Accompanied the expedition and sailed the coast of Persia. Wrote only about the voyage of the fleet.
· Onesicritus - Greek sailor on the expedition. Wrote an historical romance. Writings are unreliable.
· Aristobulus - Macedonian soldier and engineer who accompanied Alexander on the expedition to the east. Wrote when an old man. Work invaluable for geographical information and for detailed account of Alexander's last year.
· Chares - Alexander's Greek chamberlain in charge of his household. Wrote brief account of Alexander's progress. As an eye witness is important for detailing some incidents, e.g. Alexander's efforts to introduce proskynesis.
The secondary sources
Writers whose works survived are referred to as the 'extant' historians. Did not just reproduce what previous authors wrote - had their own opinions and prejudices.
Author / Nationality / Era / Writings based upon:Curtius Rufus / Roman / 1st century AD / Cleitarchus, Ptolemy
Diodorus / Roman / 1st century AD / Cleitarchus, Ptolemy
Arrian / Roman / 2nd century AD / Aristobulus, Ptolemy
Plutarch / Greek / 2nd century AD / Aristobulus, Chares, Callisthenes
Justin / Roman / 2nd century AD / Ptolemy, Cleitarchus
Reign of Philip II and accession of Alexander the Great
Philip's reign 359-336 BC
Philip's aims and policies
Philip's ultimate aim was to increase Macedonia's territory.
Many of the states he wished to take over (e.g. the Greek states to the south of Macedonia) were controlled by Persia - Philip therefore expected opposition from Persia. His main concern was that he did not match the military strength of Persia.
He therefore planned to take over the Greek states quickly, unite them under his rule and then convince them to fight Persia, their common enemy.
How Philip planned to convince the Greeks to fight with him against Persia
Philip used the pretext of a religious war of revenge; the Greeks (including Macedonians) would join forces to fight the Persians who had overtaken them and destroyed and desecrated their temples.
Steps taken by Philip to ensure his aims were fulfilled
· Fought and conquered his enemies in the north.
· Began Hellenising Macedonia. Brought tutors like Aristotle from the south in an effort to teach young Macedonian noblemen Greek literature, ideas, customs and beliefs. Greek became official language of the army and the administration.
· Reorganised the army, ensuring it was highly trained, disciplined and well-equipped.
· Initially avoided war with the Greeks, hoping they would accept Macedonian leadership. In Athens the demagogue Demosthenes preached against the uncivilised state of Macedonia and the evil nature of Philip, convincing Athens and other Greek states to raise an allied army against Macedonia; were finally defeated. Following the defeat of the Greek allies at the battle of Chaeroneia in 338 BC, Philip was able to unite and befriend the Greeks and form an allied Greek army capable of fighting the Persian empire.
The Corinthian League
Corinth is located in the Peloponnesus.
Introduction
Following success at the battle of Chaeroneia, Philip signed treaties of alliance with the defeated Greek states. Sparta refused to submit and as a result it lost much territory.
Late in 338 BC Philip circulated the rumour he wished to lead Greece in a 'PanhelIenic campaign' (all Greeks fighting together) against Persia. This gained him the support of many people. Then issued an invitation to the Greek states to attend a conference in Corinth.
Peace conference of Corinth
Representatives from all Greek states except Sparta met in Corinth for purpose of discussing and ratifying Philips proposals. Meeting began 338 BC, discussions continuing until spring of 337 BC. (Sparta refused to join, claiming to be a leader, not a follower.)
Philip proposed the states should:
· become members of a federal union, a League of Hellenes (when this was ratified, it became known as the League of Corinth
· take an oath to observe a common peace among member states
· remain free and autonomous under their existing constitutions
· respect one another's constitutions, including the kingdom of Philip and his descendants
· take common action against any state which broke the peace
· uphold existing laws dealing with executions and sentence of exiles, confiscation and redistribution of property, etc.
How Philip convinced the Greek states to become members of the League
· Used charm and diplomacy to gain support of the representatives. Treated them as equals.
· Proposals of peace and autonomy without tribute was attractive to member states.
· During the first meeting of the League, he introduced idea of raising an allied army for the purpose of fighting Persia. Was to be a religious war of revenge against the Persians for the destruction of Greek temples by Xerxes (Philip died before he could invade Persia.)
The murder of Philip
Fig. 9.4: The Macedonian royal family
People involved
Philip Arrhidaeus Son of Philip II, half-brother of Alexander.
Cleopatra Macedonian noblewoman, niece of Attalus, last wife of Philip II.
Attalus Macedonian nobleman and military commander, friend of Philip and uncle of Cleopatra.
Pausanias of Orestis Young Macedonian, bodyguard, lover and murderer of Philip II.
Pausanias Young Macedonian, Philip II became attracted to him.
Pixodarus Ruler of Caria (a state in Asia Minor controlled by Persia).
Lyncestis brothers Heromenes, Arrhabeous and Alexander. Implicated in a plot to kill Philip II. All three found guilty, only first two executed.
Achilles Mythical king of Epirus, hero of the Trojan war.
The murder
Philip II was killed in the summer of 336 BC at Aegae (a city in Macedonia) while celebrating the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to Alexander King of Epirus. As he entered the theatre attended by Alexander his son and Alexander of Epirus, Philip was stabbed and mortally wounded in the chest by Pausanias of Orestis.
Pausanias tried to escape but his foot caught in a vine. A group of bodyguards (friends of Alexander) reached Pausanias, killing him with javelins.
This account is given by the historian Diodorus and supported by Plutarch.
Why Pausanias of Orestis killed the king
Diodorus says 'Pausanias had a personal grudge against Philip'.
Pausanias of Orestis was Philip's lover.
Another young man, also called Pausanias, was attracting Philip's attentions. Pausanias of Orestis became jealous and began harassing the 'other' Pausanias. The other Pausanias confided in Attalus, but disturbed by the continuing harassment, committed suicide.
Attalus decided to avenge Pausanias' death. He invited Pausanias of Orestis to dinner, plied him with alcohol then handed Pausanias to his grooms to be beaten up.
Pausanias of Orestis complained about this incident to Philip II. Philip was angry but reluctant to punish Attalus, because Attalus was:
· a very influential Macedonian nobleman
· a skilled military commander who had been appointed to lead the forces into Asia
· related to Philip through Philip's new wife Cleopatra.
Philip attempted to appease Pausanias by plying him with generous gifts and by promoting him to a position of honour among the bodyguards.
Pausanias was not appeased. His resentment was fuelled when, in the course of a discussion
with the philosopher Hermocrates, he asked how a person could become famous, Hermocrates replied, 'by killing the man who has done the greatest deeds'.
How plausible is this personal motive?
There is some concern over dates. The 'other' Pausanias committed suicide eight years before Philip was murdered, and presumably Pausanias of Orestis was beaten up soon after the suicide.
Did Pausanias of Orestis hold a grudge for eight years? It is possible that his anger was rekindled when Attalus was put in charge of the army into Asia and his niece was married to Philip.
Other suspects
It is possible Pausanias murdered the king because he was disgruntled with his political decisions. Perhaps he was involved in a plot.
Others who wanted the king dead:
The Lyncestian brothers.
Greeks outside Macedonia.
The Persian king.
Some Macedonian nobility
Alexander and Olympias - most important suspects
The murder of Philip happened at a very opportune time for Alexander and Olympias – it is inevitable they would both be suspects.
Olympias and Alexander were the chief beneficiaries of Philip's death.
It was crucial for Alexander to gain the throne before Cleopatra had a son who was old enough to contest the throne.
Alexander was 20 years old and most impatient and anxious to do things his way and leave his
mark. He was very keen to be king.
Both he and Olympias were on bad terms with Philip.
How/why are Olympias and Alexander implicated in the murder of Philip?
Alienation of Philip and Olympias / Alexander
In the last two years of his life, Philip's relationship with Olympias and Alexander was tense.