Scottish Visitor Attractions: Variables affecting managerial perceptions of skills requirements
Sandra Watson
Napier University of Edinburgh
Dr. Martin McCracken
Napier University of Edinburgh
Abstract
This paper presents the findings from a study into managerial skills in the Scottish visitor attraction sector. It provides an insight into the range, diversity and perceived importance of current and future skills highlighting differences based on gender, age, level of training and location. Although the main findings reveal a focus on operation and self-management skills, with less emphasis given to strategic skills, significant differences were exposed between those managers who had received training and those who had not. The paper concludes by discussing implications of the findings for strategic HRD providers in Scottish tourism.
Key Words: Managerial Skills, Scottish Visitor Attractions, Human Resource Development
Introduction
'There is a perception of Scotland as a declining venue for visitors' (Lennon, McDairmid & Graham, 2001:158).
The visitor attraction sector is seen to be a fundamental constituent of Scottish Tourism, playing a major role in enhancing the visitor experience in Scotland. A visitor attraction can be identified as:
‘A permanently established excursion destination, a primary purpose of which is to allow public access for entertainment, interest or education, rather than being principally a retail outlet or venue for sporting, theatrical or film performances. It must be open to the public for published periods each year, and should be capable of attracting tourists or day visitors as well as local residents.’ (Scottish Tourist Board, 1991:1)
The visitor attractions sector in Scotland is becoming increasingly diverse, with globalisation adding to an already competitive environment. The 2000 Scottish Tourist Board Visitor Monitor identified 963 visitor attractions in Scotland (Lennon, McDairmid & Graham, 2001:2). The issue of skills and competence requirements for managers in this sector has increased in importance and hence forms the central loci of this paper. The importance of having managers with appropriate skills has been recognised as fundamental to the success of Scottish Tourism. 'Tourism People (an industry - led body whose role is to focus on meeting and exceeding customer expectations, by investing in the people who work in the industry) sees management and leadership development as a priority (Watson and Drummond, 2002). However before that development can take place it is imperative to identify what skills/ competences are required. This will assist in the provision of a framework for managerial/ leadership competence for visitor attraction managers.
In seeking to develop this model, a constructivist research paradigm was adopted, with the researchers seeking to build this framework from data and views solicited from a range of relevant perspectives. These include data on skills and competence frameworks, views from strategic players in Scottish Tourism on environmental impacts on skills, opinions of visitor attraction managers and an operational perspective through discussion with visitor attraction staff. The aim of this paper is to present the views of visitor attraction managers on the range and importance of current and future managerial skills in the visitor attraction sector in Scotland. It highlights significant differences in perceptions based on four key variables: gender, age, level of training, and location.
Relevant Literature
In reviewing the literature in this field a range of models and approaches were considered addressing functional, behavioural and meta-competence, prior to evaluation of tourism specific studies on managerial skills/competence.
The subject of developing management skills and competences and their potential role in contributing to organisational success has received much attention (Prahalad and Hamel 1990; Hamel, 1994). Stinchcombe (1990:63) contends that the foundation of an organisation’s capabilities is the competence of its individual members. This has led to a focus on competence-based management that relies heavily on the notion of identifying a range of specific skills and knowledge, which encompass all aspects of a manager's work.
The approach taken in the UK occupational standards model, has been to develop agreed classifications of what managers ‘do’, as noted by the skills, knowledge and understanding needed by managers, rather than what management ‘is’. The ability of a manager to function successfully in the workplace is then measured against these competences. However, one of the criticisms cited against this approach is that as it focuses on job specific tasks, it devalues knowledge and fails to consider the underpinning personal behaviours (Cheetham and Chivers, 1996). Closely associated with occupational standards model is the job competence model, devised by Mansfield and Mathews (1985). This also seeks to identify job related competence standards, but indicates how different components of the task, task management and the environment interact with each other. However although there is recognition by the authors that personal effectiveness can influence performance this is not further developed in their model.
In America a number of researchers including Kemp (1980), Schroder (1989) and Boyatzis (1982) identify behavioural or personal competencies that influence effective performance in the work place. However one of the weaknesses is ‘this approach does not define, or assure, effective performance within the job role’ (Cheetham and Chivers, 1996:22). Other authors including Linstead (1991 and Hyland (1992) have identified generic and overarching competencies that may be necessary to the development of more role related skills/competencies, known as ‘meta-competencies’. Hall (1986) refers to these as ‘meta-skills’, whilst Reynolds and Snell (1988) define ‘meta–qualities’ as ‘creativity mental agility and balanced learning skills.’ In reviewing approaches to competence frameworks, Cheetham and Chivers, (1996) include a discussion on ‘core skills.’ Within the National Vocational Qualifications framework, communications, numeracy, information technology, working with others and improving own learning and performance are seen as being useful transferable skills, which should be included in any competence-based frameworks. Recent models of competence have tended to ignore the role of ethics and values, focusing on functional competences. A number of authors including Ozar (1993) and Eraut et al (1994) have argued for the inclusion of these in occupational standards of competence. Jacobs (1989) proposes that attention needs to be paid to the development of both 'hard' or technical aspects of management and 'soft' or behavioural characteristics. In support of this hypothesis, the McKinsey 7-S framework, initially developed by Peters and Waterman (1982), illustrates that organisational capability is influenced by the ‘soft’ elements of style, staffing, skills, and shared values, in addition to the traditional ‘hard’ areas of strategy, structure and systems (Fifield and Gilligan, 1997).
In reviewing the literature on management and leadership competence, Winterton et al. (2000) present a range of competences and competencies that will be required of successful managers in the future. Such competences which are considered to be critical include: possessing knowledge based on a technical speciality; ability to see and act beyond local boundaries; learning and innovation; managing change; flexibility; group oriented view of leadership, and transformational leadership. Competences, identified as being important are cited as: facilitation skills; communication across national boundaries; self-reliance; responsibility; self-monitoring, and ability to learn from experience. Finally, some of the critical capabilities which organisations need to have in place are presented as being: shared value; trust; honesty; sustainable development; influence; instinct and judgement, and learning.
Although the above discussion centres on generic managerial competence and competencies, there has been a burgeoning interest in understanding what are the most important managerial skills and competences for managers in the tourist and hospitality industries. Much of the research, which has explored these sectors, has focused on identifying core managerial skills. For example Hay (1990) examined core managerial competences and characteristics, which are essential in a rapidly changing world. Tas (1988) and Christou and Eaton (1997) identify the most important competences for hotel general management. In essence these surveys all appeared to identify ‘soft’ or ‘human relation’ associated competences as being the most significant. More recently, Kay and Rusette (2000:55) conclude that although most essential hospitality managerial competencies 'fall under the rubric of leadership and interpersonal skills ' technical knowledge of product-service' and 'adapting creatively to change' were also rated as essential. Ladkin (1999:170) when reviewing the empirical research into hotel managers found that when researchers have concerned themselves with more applied research and looked at what managers in hotels actually do, four principal roles of entrepreneur; cost controller; marketeer, and service and quality control assurance, could be identified. A Skills Task Force commissioned report, designed to investigate the nature, extent and pattern of skill needs and shortages in the UK leisure sector, found that in the leisure sector there were major skills gaps among the existing workforce, including: entrepreneurial and management skills; IT and customer care skills and the training of volunteers (Keep and Mayhew, 1999: 2).
Also receiving some attention in the literature has been the research that has specifically attempted to identify the importance of managers possessing a balanced range of skills and competencies (Gamble et al., 1994; Ladkin and Riley, 1996). Guerrier and Lockwood (1989) question the validity of the traditional approach to developing hospitality managers, which has led to an operational perspective on skill requirements being developed. At the time of their study there was little evidence of any focus on ‘the development of human relations skills for managers and indeed little acceptance for this sort of development’ (Guerrier and Lockwood 1989). Carper (1993) indicates that there is still support for operational skills training, but hotel managers acknowledge the growing importance of managerial skills in enhancing the performance of the hotel. Perdue, Ninemeier and Woods (2000) in researching competencies required for Country Club Managers found that they need expertise in accountancy & finance, human and professional resourcing and food and beverage management. Swarbrooke (1995: 363) interprets the following issues to be important for the future success in managing visitor attractions: increased emphasis on quality; flatter structures and empowerment of staff; more emphasis on recruitment, development, appraisal and performance related pay; increased use of integrated computerised management information systems; increased professionalism of managers; greater emphasis on marketing, and a focus on ethical and social responsibility.
This brief overview of the research into managerial competence serves to reinforce the fact that researchers have been preoccupied with examining the hotel sector, and have neglected other sectors of the tourism industry. In seeking to develop a framework of managerial skill/competencies for visitor attractions, the above literature review was used to build an initial range of competence statements encompassing meta-competencies, knowledge/cognitive; functional; personal or behavioural and values/ethical competences.
Research Questions
In an earlier phase of this research (see Watson and McCracken, 2002) the views of experts at the strategic level of Scottish tourism regarding skills requirements of managers in visitor attractions were gathered. These were used to augment the skills statements derived from the literature review, particularly in the knowledge and functional competence domains. Table 1 provides a summary of the key skills elicited from these interviews.
Table 1 Key skills identified by Tourism Experts
Managerial Skill/ Competence requirementsOpportunity to collectively lobby / Understanding and meeting diverse customer needs
Keeping up to date with relevant legislation / Seeing and acting beyond local boundaries
Promoting attraction, acting as an ambassador / Benchmarking against international standards
Marketing and pricing effectively / Networking
Managing more educated and diverse range of employees staff / Understanding need to compete with a wide range of leisure providers (e.g. retail, cinemas etc)
Language skills / Appropriate pricing strategy and effective marketing
Creativity and Innovation / Awareness of training & development opportunities
Need to be commercially viable / Understanding the composition and needs of diverse markets
Using technology in managerial decision making / Balancing commercial and ecological needs
Using internet to promote and sell the attraction / Using technology to enhance visitor experience
Computer literacy skills
This information along with that uncovered in the literature was used to design a questionnaire to elicit managers’ views on the importance of stated managerial skills, both now and in the future. In constructing the research design the main objective was to address two research questions:
· Which skills/competences and competencies do managers in Scottish visitor attractions consider most important both now and in the future?
· Do the variables of gender, age, level of training of managers and the location of the attraction influence managers’ perception of importance of skills?
Methodology
By using theories on skill requirements and the views of experts in the industry, a deductive or positivist stance was adopted where attempts were made to see if the skill requirements reported elsewhere were relevant in the visitor attraction sector. A process of categorisation was undertaken to produce four key skill categories of Strategic/General Management; People Management; Self Management; and Operational Skills to reflect range of skills elicited from the literature review and the key experts. Additionally, this categorisation was intended to make the questions flow more logically, and form the basis for analysing the data. Table 2 provides a breakdown of the number of skill items within each skill category in the questionnaire.
After piloting, the final survey instrument contained 37 skills statements divided into four categories. Respondents were asked to rate current and future importance of the skill on a five point Likert scale. The lowest rating equated to ‘no’ importance, and the highest option in terms of importance was labelled as ‘essential’. The questionnaire also included six factual biographical questions (name, age, job-title, experience, education, and gender) and four open-ended questions where the manager could provide contextual information regarding the attraction, including size, location, ownership and training and development provided. In addition to completing the ratings of managerial skills, respondents were asked to identify what they saw as the top three skills required of attraction managers.
Table 2 Skill categories and number of items
Category / Antecedents (From literature & interviews) / Number of items listedStrategic/ General Management / Analysing external environment: networking: balancing stakeholder contradictions: benchmarking: creating shared values: knowledge management: commercial/ecological and external funding / 8
People Management / Attracting, recruiting and leading employees: motivating & enthusing, training & development: teambuilding :skills shortages: openness trust: managing diversity & conflicts / 8
Self Management / Influence: enthusiasm: self-reliance: learning; creativity & innovation: ambassador / 6
Operational / Pricing: budgeting: planning: marketing: technology: enhancing visitor experience: decision-making: promotion: customer focus: marketing: quality enhancement: languages: legislation: honesty: safety & security / 15
The sample of all visitor attractions (396) charging either an entrance fee or a fee to some part of the site, for example for a guided tour or special displays, was chosen for this study. The reason for selecting this sample is that these attractions have to compete commercially with other tourist or leisure attractions. Therefore, managerial skills, competence and capability are fundamental to the attraction’s success. The rationale behind this process of sample selection can be aligned with the theoretical sample selection method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), based on the premise that it is important to select respondents who will maximise theoretical understanding and development. The questionnaires were mailed to General Managers in October 2001(a ‘low season’ for the attractions). A second mailing took place in early December for those who had not replied by the end of November. After the two mailings, 107 useable completed questionnaires were received, giving a response rate of 27%.