Relation in Maritime Trade Between India and Southeast Asia

Relation in Maritime Trade between India and Southeast Asia

from 10th to 15th Centuries

(Case of Champa in Vietnam and Srivijaya in Indonesia)

Van Kim Hoang Ha

The sea was an important factor in the formation of Southeast Asian history. The relationship between the sea and the mainland, the combination and support between economic space and cultural space, had driven the development of culture associated with the formation of the ancient kingdom in Southeast Asia. Despite these different nuances and levels of development, the traditional culture of this area, in the minds of many ethnic communities, had always accommodated the marine elements.[1] Water has been a decisive factor in Southeast Asia’s historical development in a number of ways. Over thousand of years, Asian waters have been much traveled, and it has often been suggested that the central dynamic of Southeast Asian history is to be found in the interaction between peoples, primarily through trade.[2]

Southeast Asia is a region that has never been separated from the world economy. It is the bridge to the vital trading axis of the world. Maritime trade is the important part of Southeast Asian trade from the ancient time to nowadays. Countries or states in Southeast Asia were the centre of maritime trade and became the bridge of the many big economic centers in the world and in the Asia. From the first centuries AD (of the Christian era), a lot of ports in Southeast Asia, especially in Funan and Champa (Vietnam nowadays) or Sumatra (Indonesia nowadays) were entrepots from China to India, East Asia and vice visa.

Through these dynamic activities of maritime trade, Champa merchants in some states of Southeast Asia can come to Dai Viet (Tonkin), China, Japan. In this period, thanks the maritime trade with Asian market, especially with the South of India, ports in Funan achieved the prosperity after the short time. Sea and maritime trade brought to motivation to steadily development of Funan kingdom. So that, with the development of maritime trade, after one century since Funan kingdom was formed, this kingdom became the well-being/prosperous state. Funan culture is one of the earliest developed and the most brilliant civilization in early Southeast Asian history. With the effective economic activities of Champa peoples in the ports along the coastal in the center of Vietnam, Champa became the polity of maritime. After that, the appearance of Champa kingdom in the world of maritime trade in Southeast Asia contributed the development of this area in the ancient time.

“Traditionally, maritime centers thrived in the “orbit” of the ruler. Ports are important to agrarian-based states as the source of external markets for their produce as well as a vital source of luxury goods such as cloth, spices, precious metals and aromatics that were critical ritual and ceremonial commodities, while ports required the produce and markets of their hinterlands to sustain their existence”.[3] Therefore, ports are the important place with the maritime world.

From the historical record archaeological evidences stated that in the 9th century, Srivijaya has done colonization in almost all the kingdoms of Southeast Asia including Sumatra, Java, Malay Peninsula, Cambodia and South Vietnam. Dominance over the Straits of Malacca and Sunda Strait makes Srivijaya as controller of the spice trade routes and the local trade who charge for every ship passing. Sriwijaya accumulate wealth as a port and trading warehouses waiting China and India markets.

Srivijaya was also closely correlated with Pala kingdom in Bengal and an inscription dates to about 860 records that the king Balaputra a monastery dedicated to the University Nalada Pala. The relation between Srivijaya with Chola dynasty in southern India was quite good and then bad after Rajendra Coladewa throne and attacked in the 11th century. Kings of Srivijaya controlled the archipelago through trade, especially maritime trade and conquested from the period of the 7th century until the 9th century.

By the beginning of the tenth century, while Central Java gradually lost its importance, Sriwijaya became a mighty kingdom extending on both sides of the Strait of Malacca, as well as an important Buddhist centre of learning, where monks from India and China met and discussed the doctrine. The settlement in the Palembang region of was organized around two zones: the small hill of Bukit Seguntang on the one hand, and the banks of the Musi River on the other hand. The river constituted the main transportation route not only within the settlement, but also within the polity.

After the Chola from South India in 1025 sacked Sriwijaya and other coastal centres along the Strait of Malacca, it appears that the centre of Malayu power shifted from Palembang to Jambi, on the Batanghari River.

Century 10th to century 15th is the prosperous period of states in Southeast Asia such as Ayutthaya (Thailand), Srivijaya and Majapahit (Indonesia), Dai Viet (Vietnam). In international relationship, because of some differences about geographical position, potentiality and policies, Southeast Asian states became a part of Asian trade system with the different levels.

Since ancient times the Indian Ocean has been a major communication pathway between the East and the West. Unlike the Silk Road over land, the Silk Road over sea was fast and efficient and vessels carried enormous cargos from the east to the west. It is known that by the first millennium BC, spices and incense were being brought to the west by sea. There are also records of Chinese Buddhist pilgrims visiting India between 380 and 780 AD. So the Indian Ocean, before the arrival of the Portuguese in 1497, was dominantly a trade between Europe, via the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, India, Southeast Asia and China. The arrival of the Europeans in the 16th century disrupted the trade from the East through the Mediterranean and created the great trading companies of the Dutch, English and Portuguese.

According to Anthony Reid, he said that individuals and states in Southeast Asia “can get big benefit from international trade throughout their adaptation with the change of demand”. Geoff Wade, said that during this period, the big changes of kingdoms as well as the policies of commerce in China, India, South Asia and East Asia, and the development of Southeast Asia has brought the positive/advantageous environment to promote maritime trade activities and resulted that the formation of new sea port and some political and social changes in the states of Southeast Asia.[4]

Meanwhile, acccording to Philippe Beaujard, relation maritime trade did not only be formed by geography, economy but also politic. The relation between economic and politics always exists in history. So that, any research about relation in maritime trade need to be reviewed in the historical background/setting of politics, economy and culture where the activities of maritime trade took place.

1. Historical background of the world from century 10th to century 15th

Century 10th and 11th marked an important period to Europe and Asia. In this period, Europe rehabilitated after “The black period”. Meanwhile, the Asian economy developed strongly in this period. This moment also remarked the establishment of many states and new power center: Fatimid dynasty in Angkor (944), Chola dynasty in South India (985), Khmer dynasty in Angkor (944), Myanmar in Pagan (1044), Ly dynasty in North of Vietnam (1009).[5]

The political stability in this period promoted maritime relations in the intra-Asia and the boom of international merchant’s organizations, who played an important role in connecting South Asia and East Asia. The Asian merchants contributed directly or not directly the richness and prosperity of the area of maritime trade routes. All entrepots in maritime routes made the linkage to transport local goods to the city ports in that area.[6]

In the chaos of the late 12th century, a chieftain named Temüjin finally succeeded in uniting the Mongol tribes. In 1206, he took the title Genghis Khan, throughout a long time of the development, Gengis Khan became the head of Mongolian state. In 1211, Gengis Khan attacked the Northern China [7] and waged a series of military campaigns – renowned for their brutality and ferocity – sweeping through much of Asia, and forming the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in world history. After that, Mongolia invaded many countries and states in the world, include Asia, Souhtheast Asia such as Japan, Korea, Dai Viet (Tonkin), Java, Khmer, etc.

Mongolia formed the great empire that has not existed in the history yet. That empire has the great scale and territories spreading throughout Europe and Asia. However, when Mongol invaded Vietnam, this army has been defeated by alliance Vietnam – Champa (1281-1285). Vietnam (Tonkin in that time) was one of the countries that can be against the Mongol invasion successfully.

A lot of changes happened and changed all settings of the world in this time. The collapses and formations of many states in Southeast Asia changed the the political situation and development of maritime trade in the world. The disappearance of Champa kingdom after the territorial extension of Tonkin in the century 13th and the collapse of Angkor Empire after the continuous territorial extension of Tonkin and Thailand made the face of the world change a lot.

The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries can be called ‘the Golden Age of Sumatra’. Mainly in western and northern regions, archeological finds such as statues, inscriptions, and ceramics are more plentiful than in preceding centuries. This is in accordance with the significant role Sumatra played in the field of policy and trade, particularly with Java. The kingdoms of Malayu and Panai were both vassal states of Singhasari and then Majapahit.[8]

The changes in the Asian region in general and the countries in Southeast Asia in particular, more or less they affected the economy of this area. The economy only developed when the politics was stable. Therefore, there was the turbulence in certainly nation or region which will easily lead to the recession of the economy of that nation or region. This clearly affected the maritime trade economy, especially maritime trade relations between India and the Southeast Asian kingdoms.

2. The development of Indian and Southeast Asia maritime trade from century 10th to century 15th

2.1. The development of Indian maritime trade from century 10th to century 15th

When the political situation in China was stable, the enviroment for maritime trade have many advantages. After the collapse of Duong dynasty in 906, did Tang dynasty once unite China in 960. Tang dynasty was known and accepted such as the most successful dynasty in China in the promotion as well as control the maritime trade activities. The reunification of China under Tang dynasty and the policies which implemented/carried out by Tang dynasties have affected profoundly the Asian maritime trade system. Tang dynasty have already taken advantage of the maritime trade activities in the southern pantai, increased and renovated the nautical technique which has turned Chinese cloth, silk and ceramic into common goods in maritime trade route throughout South China Sea.

Besides, Caliphs in Abbasid dynasties in Baghdad had serious difficulties in the control of political context after 9th century, many civil wars happened in Persian Gulf. This problem brought the difficulties for maritime trade route from Indian Ocean to Mediterranean Sea. However, from the end of 10th century, Caliph in Fatimid dynasty (909-1171) stabilized political situation in Egypt, brought the peace for maritime trade route throughout Red Sea. So that, many spices has been brought to market in Mediterranean Sea.[9]

We can conclude that the stable of political situation in and out of countries has taken advantage of maritime trade activities between India and Southeast Asia in specific and the world in general. These subjects had mutual effects from time to time.

Pallava dynasty grew rapidly in the South of India[10] from the middle of 6th century to the middle of 8th century and has relations with other countries in Southeast Asia. Pallava dynasty began to decline in the end of 8th century and was replaced by Chola dynasty in the 9th century. Chola dynasties developed their country, based on the development of trade which Pallava dynasty formed and extended the maritime trade relations as well as merchant community.[11]

The Chola dynasty (200—1279) reached the peak of its influence and power during the medieval period.[12] Emperors Rajaraja Chola I (reigned 985-1014) and Rajendra Chola I (reined 1012-1044) extended the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits.[13] At its peak, the Chola Empire stretched from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in the north.[14] The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty.[15] Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya in Maritime Southeast Asia.[16] Goods and ideas from India began to play a major role in the "southernization" of the wider world from this period.[17]

The Indian commercial connection with Southeast Asia proved vital to the merchants of Arabia and Persia between the 7th and 8th centuries CE. The kingdoms of Vijaynagar and Kalinga established footholds in Malaya, Sumatra and Western Java.

Picture: Trade route in Chola kingdom

The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures. The Tang dynasty (618–907) of China, the Srivijaya empire in Maritime Southeast Asia under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid – Kalifat at Baghdad were the main trading partners.[18]