Primal Religion
Leaving Certificate Section C World Religions
Part 1 The Phenomenon of Religion
Topic 1.2 Primal Religion
Description of content / Outcomes· The nature of primal religion and its
importance for the study of religion
· The concepts and phenomena of
o Mana
o Tabu
o Totem
o Shaman / As a result of studying this section, students should be able to
· Present a portrait of primal religion and give an
account of its important influence on all religion
· Write a brief paragraph on each of the following:
o Mana
o Tabu
o Totem
o Shaman
Leaving Certificate R.E. syllabus, p35
Please note that the following article is background information only on this topic. It in no way constitutes a sample or exemplary answer on this topic.
Mana
Not to be confused with the biblical mana/ manna in Exodus 16 which provided sustenance for the Israelites on their journey to the Promised Land, mana refers to an impersonal force or quality that resides in people, animals and inanimate objects and can produce in the observer a sense of wonder or respect. It refers to a concept among the speakers of Oceanic languages, including Melanesians, Polynesians and Micronesians. It is sometimes understood as “the stuff of which magic is formed”, as well as the substance of which souls are made. It appears to be a precursor of formal religion. It is a well known concept in Polynesian religion and its use has been popularised in modern culture by anthropology. In Polynesian culture (e.g. Maoir and Hawaiian) mana is similar to the English concept of “respect” and is linked to authority, power and prestige. It also shares elements of “responsibility”, “balance” and “purity”. Mana is an important foundation to the Hawaiian concept of spirituality, religion, society and all of reality, thus it carries a complex meaning. It is not just people who possess mana. To have mana is to have authority and influence, be that by persons, governments, places and inanimate objects. In Hawaiian “mana loa” means “great power” or “almighty” (whereas the word “akua” is most commonly used to refer to God). In Melanesian culture mana is perceived as a sacred impersonal force existing in the universe. Again, mana can be in people, object, animals and plants. Similar to the idea of efficacy or luck, the Melanesians believed that all success was traced back to mana. One could acquire or manipulate this luck in various ways (e.g. through magic). Certain objects that contain mana can change a person’s luck. Such objects may include charms or amulets. An example of this would be seen if a prosperous hunter used a charm that had mana and he gave it to another person, then people believed that the prosperous hunter’s luck would transfer to the next holder of the charm. In New Zealand Maoir, mana also refers to pride. In other cultures the concept of mana has referred to the power of magic. However it was not the only principle and others included the idea of seeking the intervention of a specific supernatural being, whether deity, saint or deceased ancestor. The magic of mana was embedded into all talismans and fetishes, whether devoted to ancient gods, Roman Catholic relics of saints, the spirits of the ancestors or the underlying elements that make up the universe and all life within it. The concept of mana has been used in various cultures to justify human sacrifices because the living-force or blood of sacrificial victims might contain supernatural powers whose offering would please a deity.[1]
Tabu
A system of setting apart a person or an object as either sacred or accursed, originating from a Polynesian word “tabultapu”, meaning a restriction or prohibition related to the sacred. The term has passed into more general usage to describe the ritual prohibition or the restriction on certain categories of people to enter the domain of the sacred. This may be temporary, as associated with periods of ritual impurity such as menstruation, or permanent, such as gender or caste restrictions.[2] Sometimes spelled “taboo”, it is a system of social ordering that dictates that special objects and activities, owing to their sacred nature, are set aside for specific groups and are strictly forbidden to others; common to many primal peoples, including the Australian Aborigines.[3] Aboriginal society is carefully structured. Certain people are forbidden to participate in certain rituals. The basis of this structure is the concept of taboo, which dictates that certain things and activities, owing to their sacred nature, are set aside for specific members of the group and are forbidden to others. Violation of this principle has on occasion been punishable by death. The sites and rituals associated with certain Ancestors are for men only. Others, such as those connected with childbirth, are for women only. Restrictions are also based on maturity and on an individual’s amount of religious training. Usually the older members of the tribe are in charge of important rituals.[4] The concept exists in many Polynesian societies, including traditional Maori and Tongan cultures where anything tapu (Maori) or tabu (tongan) is considered inviolable or sacrosanct due to its sacredness. Things which are tabu must be left alone and should not be approached or interfered with. In some cases they may not even be spoken of. In Maori society the concept of tapu was often used by tohunga (priests) to protect resources from over exploitation, by declaring a fishery or other resource as tapu. The English word “taboo” derives from this usage and was adopted by Captain Cook during his visit to Tonga in 1777. In Hawaiian the word “kapu” is normally translated as “forbidden”. It refers to the ancient system of laws and regulations. Breaking a kapu, even unintentionally, often meant death. Kapu restrictions included contact with chiefs and all people of spiritual power. It was kapu to enter a chief’s personal area, to come in contact with his hair or fingernail clippings, to look directly at him and to be in sight of him with a head raised higher than his. It was kapu to wear red and yellow feathers (symbol of royalty) unless you were of highest rank. Places that were considered kapu were represented by two crossed staffs, each with a white ball atop. Kapu also restricted contact between the sexes. Men and women could not eat meals together. Certain foods such as pork, certain bananas, and coconuts were considered kapu to women. The kapu system was common in Hawaii until 1819 when King Kamehameha ll abolished it by the symbolic act of sharing a meal of forbidden foods with the women of his court. The opposite of kapu is “noa” meaning “common” or “free”. Some taboo activities or customs are prohibited under law and transgressions incur harsh penalties. Other taboos result in embarrassment, shame and rudeness. More examples of taboo: The Nubas of East Africa believed that they would die if they entered the house of their priestly king. However, they could evade the death penalty by baring the left shoulder and getting the king to lay his hands on it. Among the Maori anyone who had handled a corpse or participated in its burial was most unclean and was almost cut off from contact with others. He could not enter a house or come into contact with any person or thing without infecting them. Food would be left for him on the ground where he would sit or kneel down and, keeping his hands behind his back, would gnaw at the food, since his hands were not permitted to touch it. Mourners of the dead were also secluded from the public. When their period of mourning was almost over they had to smash all the dishes used during seclusion, and throw away all the garments worn during the exclusion period. In Ireland too there were examples of taboo. The ancient kings of Ireland were subject to many strange restrictions as listed in the Book of Rights. For example, a king was not permitted to stay in a certain town on a particular day of the week, nor cross a river at a particular hour of the day, nor encamp for nine days on a certain place.[5]
Totem
The word “totem” is derived from the Algonkian word “Dodem”, originally meaning “to be related to someone” (i.e. someone who shares a family crest, or totem). A totem is an object which is imbued with sanctity resulting from its identification with a particular clan, tribe or people and from which all the members of that group are believed to be descendents. The totem functions as a guardian spirit and there are generally prescriptions on eating, killing or touching the totem animal. Some totems exist in the form of poles. Totemism: the beliefs and practices associated with religious forms that consider there to be a familial relationship between humans and nature. Totemism is a feature of some tribal societies where natural objects and creatures are seen to possess supernatural power.[6] A totem is any entity which watches over or assists a group of people, such as a family, clan or tribe.[7] Totems support larger groups than the individual person. In kinship and descent, if the apical ancestor of a clan is nonhuman, it is called a totem. Normally this belief accompanies a totemic myth. The word is of Ojibwa origin but totemistic beliefs are not restricted to Native American Indians. Similar beliefs have been found in Western and Eastern Europe, Africa, Australia and the Arctic polar region. The bald eagle might be considered the totem of the people of the USA, though it carries no spiritual mythology amongst these people. Beyond tribal religion in modern times some people adopt a personal spirit animal helper which has some kind of special meaning to them, and incorrectly call this a totem. This practice is common in the New Age movement. Some even believe that their animal helper acts as a spirit guide. Some Native Americans take a dim view of others’ adoption of totem animals, arguing that a non-adherent cannot truly understand totemism apart from the cultural context and that it may even represent a commercialisation of religious beliefs. Totem poles are monumental sculptures carved from great trees, typically Western Redcedar, by a number of Native American cultures along the Pacific northwest coast of North America.[8]
Shaman
A person who, because of his/her special personality and training, can make contact with the supernatural world. Through trance experiences he/she is able to contact the deity, spirits or world of the dead. Shamans maintain a special relationship with the worlds and beings that they visit, and can become possessed by supernatural beings when in trance states, facilitating communication between the worlds. Shamanic communication can be used to cure illness, to protect against hazardous enterprises such as hunting expeditions or long journeys, or to bless harvests. Usually shamanism is found in small scale agricultural or hunting societies but has re-emerged as part of New Age and Neo Pagan religions in advanced post-industrial societies.[9] Shamanism refers to a range of traditional beliefs and practices similar to Animism that claim the ability to diagnose and cure human suffering and, in some societies, the ability to cause suffering. This is thought to be accomplished by traversing the axis mundi and forming a special relationship with, or gaining control over spirits. Shamans are said to be able to control the weather, divination, interpret dreams, astral projection and travelling to upper and lower worlds. Shamanic traditions have existed since prehistoric times. Some anthropologists and scholars of religion have defined a shaman as an intermediary between the natural world and the spiritual world, who travels between worlds in a state of trance. Once in the spirit world the shaman can commune with the spirits for assistance in healing, hunting or weather management. Ripinsky-Naxon describes shamans as “people who have a strong interest in their surrounding environment and the society of which they are a part.” Other anthropologists argue that “shamanism” is a culturally specific word and that by expanding it to fit any healer from any traditional society it produces a false unity between these cultures and creates a false idea of an initial human religion predating all others. Shamanism presumes that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits that affect the lives of the living. Shamanism, unlike animism, requires specialised knowledge or abilities rather than a practice carried out by the majority. Shamans are not usually organised into full time ritual or spiritual associations in the way that priestly people are.[10]
[1] Adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mana
[2] Greaves, R: Key Words in Religious Studies (p102), The Continuum International Publishing Group, London, 2006
[3] Brodd, J: World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery (p39), St. Mary’s Press, Winona, 2003
[4] Ibid; p25
[5] Adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taboo#Examples
[6] Greaves: p104
[7] Merriam-Webster Online Dectionary
[8] Adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/Totem
[9] Greaves: p96
[10] Adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaman