Three Basic Theories
I. Instinct Theory now replaced by evolutionary theory
· Genetically wired to perform a behavior
The early view that instincts control behavior has been replaced by evolutionary theory, which searches for the adaptive functions of behavior
Instinct: a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned within a species and is unlearned.
Instincts alone do not explain human behaviors but underlying assumption that genes predispose species-typical behavior is true (evolutionary theory)
Darwin’s influence- early theorists viewed behavior as being controlled by instincts, When it became clear that people were naming, not explaining, various behaviors by calling them instincts, this approach fell into disfavor. The idea that genes predispose species-typical behavior is still influential in evolutionary psychology. This perspective searches for the adaptive functions of behavior.
• McDougall (1908): Human behavior is
motivated by instincts.
• “Instincts” became meaningless labels.
– Described behavior without explaining it.
• Are at least some aspects of human motivation innate?
– Evolutionary approach
- Behavior “hard-wired” into the nervous system
- Provide survival value
- More common in lower animals
- Doesn’t meet the complexity of most human behavior
- Modified by experience
William James (1890) The first psychology text book – listed 37 human instincts including the “mental instincts” of jealousy, curiosity, and cleanliness.
Later other early theorists added more instincts… the list reached about 10,000 (Bernard, 1924).
Further instinct theorists fell into a trap by using instincts to both LABEL and EXPLAIN behavior. They would end up saying the “studying behavior” would be explained by the “studying instinct” What is the studying instinct????? Well,…. It is studying behavior. This circular reasoning lead to dropping of this instinct theory…
II. Drive Reduction Theory
most physiological needs create aroused psychological states that drive us to reduce or satisfy those needs.
The aim of drive reduction is internal stability, or homeostasis.
Homeostasis: Equilibrium our bodies need to keep us alive. Body temp, oxygen, water, nutrients, etc must be within a certain range for life to continue.
· When equilibrium is off – our bodies encourage us to take action to regain balance.
· Run the pacer and are hot.. Motivation is to drink water
· Blame your high electric bills on the need for homeostasis
Body Temperature:
Hypothermia must be treated when body temp gets to 95◦ and becomes fatal when it drops below 90◦ F
Fever is anything about normal but does not become a concern until 100◦
82.7 F muscle failure
91.4 F unconsciousness
107.6 breakdown of CNS
111.2 Death
Drive reduction hungry (drive) eat to reduce it and get to homeostasis
According to drive reduction theory, primary and secondary drives reduce biological needs caused by an imbalance in homeostasis.
Primary Drive: associated with innate bodily functions (ex. Of stimuli would be food, water, air, temperature, and almost any intense stimulus like loud noises or electric shocks
Secondary Drives: LEARNED for humans sources of secondary drives are learned desires such as success, power, affection, money, appearance and security. Some theorists say fear, anxiety and certain verbal cues are also learned
Furthermore, we are not only pushed by internal drives but we are also pulled by external incentives. When there is both a need (hunger) and an incentive (smell of baking bread), we feel strongly driven
Reduce the drive!!! To get back to homeostasis
Drive-reduction theory maintains that physiological needs create psychological drives that seek to restore internal stability, or homeostasis. In addition, some motivated behaviors increase arousal, and we are pulled by external incentives
Drive-reduction theory - emphasizes the interaction between internal pushes and external pulls
Pushed by need to reduce drive Smoke to get rid of anxiety
Pulled by incentive Reduction in insurance costs
Level of need determines level of drive (if really really hungry you will be motivated to get food)
If the only thing in the kitchen is white rice– you would have to be really hungry to get up and fix yourself a bowl. But, if hungry enough it would taste good
OR…. If you are stuffed even French Silk Pie could sound awful.
IF drive is weak incentive must be strong or vise versa
Problems with Drive Reduction Theory
Homeostasis is good for explaining thirst, hunger, and 02 needs, but what about other things that motivate us but are NOT needed for survival.
Ex. Sex – very motivating for most people but… despite rumors to the contrary nobody can die from lack of sex
Incentive Theory – related to drive reduction theory sometimes listed separately
EXAMPLE: In January 1994, at the Lake Como Fish and Game Club near Syracuse, N.Y., Brian Carr beat out three dozen competitors in the annual ice-fishing derby, with 155 catches.
The temperature that day was minus 30, and the prize money for the top three anglers was $8, $6.50, and $5.
Why would 37 people endure such harsh conditions in pursuit of such a small reward?
Drive reduction doesn’t explain
• Curiosity
• Sensation seeking
• Animals want to increase level of arousal
• Exploration
• Risk taking
III. Optimal Arousal Theory
Rather than reducing a physiological need or minimizing tension, some motivated behaviors increase arousal. Curiosity-driven behaviors, for example, suggest that too little or too much stimulation can motivate people to seek an optimum level of arousal.
• Motivation is tied to regulation of arousal.
• Performance is best when arousal is moderate.
• Motivated to behave in ways that maintain one’s optimal level of arousal.
Curiosity causes kids to search for hidden gifts;
Highlights the urge for an optimal level of stimulation;
Anything below O.A. causes you to want to do something
We seek an optimum level of excitement or arousal – need for this can be measured by psychological tests
Varies by person
People with high optimal arousal levels – may be drawn to thrill seeking activities
Ex. Bored in class….all of a sudden desire to do something tap foot, move finger, draw
Yerkes-Dodson Law Anything below O.A. causes you to want to do something
On a simple test you want high arousal level
On a difficult test you want low arousal
Arousal helps performance but only to an extent – too much or too little not good
IF it is so simple you will do poorly because you won’t try enough
If it is too difficult and you are too aroused will do bad
Want middle (optimal)
Test - if think really easy may go in too relaxed and unprepared (sloppy mistakes)
Test – if you think it is too hard you could work yourself up so much you blank out
EXPLAINS RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AROUSAL AND PERFORMANCE
Why Do Students Go to College?
An effective way of introducing the nature and diversity of human motivation is to ask students, “Why do you think people go to college?”
Answers will cover the full range of human motives, from
“Eventually they have to earn a living to feed their family” through
“Some come to find a wife or husband”
“They simply want to know, to increase their competence.”
Have fun
HAVE STUDENTS CREATE LIST IN A GROUP – later apply to Maslow
The discussion provides an excellent opportunity to illustrate that motivation has both energizing and directional aspects. The diversity of answers also provides a good lead-in to Maslow’s hierarchy of motives.
Abraham Maslow 1908-1907
Hierarchy of needs which describes how some motives are, if unsatisfied, more basic and compelling than others
At the base of the hierarchy are our physiological needs, such as for food, water, and shelter. Only if these are met are we prompted to meet our need for safety, and then to meet the uniquely human needs to give and receive love, to belong and be accepted, and to enjoy self-esteem. Beyond this, said Maslow, lies the highest of human needs: to actualize one’s full potential.
Self-Actualized: Maslow’s term for the state of having brought to life the full potential of our skills.
Hierarchy of needs
Self – Actualization (highest human potential)
Self – Esteem
Belonging Needs and Love Higher Order Needs
Safety Needs Lower Order Needs
Physiological necessity
** All things will stop in the face of loss of physiological necessity
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Actualization Needs: to fulfill your unique potential be the best you can be (Humanist)
Esteem Needs to achieve and gain approval and recognition
Belongingness and Love Needs to be accepted and belong
Safety Needs to feel safe, secure and out of danger
Physiological Needs satisfy drives (hunger thirst etc.)
Create examples of each
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Students find Maslow’s hierarchy to be an interesting discussion topic and are often quick to point out that it oversimplifies the relationship between motives and behavior. You may want to discuss a number of common misconceptions about the hierarchy.
1.Maslow himself recognized that while the order holds for most people, there are exceptions.
Martyrs: Sacrifice life itself for an ideal.
For some people, the need for respect must be satisfied before they can enter into a love relationship.
2.Maslow also recognized that a given motive did not have to be 100 percent satisfied before we turn to a higher need.
Our needs, Maslow said, are only partially satisfied at any given moment.
He estimated that for the average American:
85 percent of physiological needs
70 percent of safety needs
50 percent of belongingness and love needs
40 percent of self-esteem needs
10 percent of self-actualization needs are satisfied.
Still, it makes sense that how well lower needs are met determines how much those needs influence our behavior.
3. Maslow noted that the means of satisfying a particular need varied across cultures. In our society, a person may win respect from others by becoming a doctor. In another society, respect may come from being a successful hunter or farmer.
4. Maslow did not actually believe that any given behavior is motivated by a single need; he contended that behavior is the result of multiple motivations.
Sexual behavior, for example, may be motivated by the need for sexual release, by a need to win or express affection, by a sense of conquest or mastery, and/or by a desire to feel feminine or masculine.
5.Maslow described another set of human needs that does not appear in the hierarchy: the cognitive needs, or the needs to know and to understand.
These needs are expressed in the need to analyze or reduce things to their basic elements; the need to experiment, to “see what will happen if I do this”; the need to explain, to construct a personal theory that will make sense of the events of one’s world.
Maslow even suggested that these needs form their own smaller hierarchy. For example, the need to know is more important than the need to understand.
The cognitive needs appear early in life and are seen in a child’s natural curiosity. Failure to meet these needs (because parents and schools sometimes teach a child to inhibit this spontaneous curiosity) can inhibit the development and full functioning of the individual.