History. the Growing Power of Athens Had Frightened Other Greek States for Years Before

History. The growing power of Athens had frightened other Greek states for years before the Peloponnesian War broke out in 431. During the war, Pericles died in the plague of Athens (429); fortunes of war varied until a truce was made in 421, but this was never very stable and in 415 Athens was persuaded by Alcibiades, a pupil of the Athenian teacher, Socrates, to send a huge force to Sicily in an attempt to take over some of the cities there. This expedition was destroyed in 413. Nevertheless Athens continued the war. In 411 an oligarchy ("rule by a few") was instituted in Athens in an attempt to secure financial support from Persia, but this did not work out and the democracy was soon restored. In 405 the last Athenian fleet was destroyed in the battle of Aegospotami by a Spartan commander, and the city was besieged and forced to surrender in 404. Sparta set up an oligarchy of Athenian nobles (among them Critias, a former associate of Socrates and a relative of Plato), which because of its brutality became known as the Thirty Tyrants. By 403 democracy was once again restored. Socrates was brought to trial and executed in 399Socrates (469-399), despite his foundational place in the history of ideas, actually wrote nothing. Most of our knowledge of him comes from the works of Plato (427-347), and since Plato had other concerns in mind than simple historical accuracy it is usually impossible to determine how much of his thinking actually derives from Socrates.

The Apology

The most accurate of Plato's writings on Socrates is probably the The Apology. It is Plato's account of Socrates's defense at his trial in 399 BC (the word "apology" comes from the Greek word for "defense-speech" and does not mean what we would think of as an apology). It is clear, however, that Plato dressed up Socrates's speech to turn it into a justification for Socrates's life and his death. In it, Plato outlines some of Socrates's most famous philosophical ideas: the necessity of doing what one thinks is right even in the face of universal opposition, and the need to pursue knowledge even when opposed.

Socrates wrote nothing because he felt that knowledge was a living, interactive thing. Socrates' method of philosophical inquiry consisted in questioning people on the positions they asserted and working them through questions into a contradiction, thus proving to them that their original assertion was wrong. Socrates himself never takes a position; in The Apology he radically and skeptically claims to know nothing at all except that he knows nothing. Socrates and Plato refer to this method of questioning as elenchus , which means something like "cross-examination" The Socratic elenchus eventually gave rise to dialectic, the idea that truth needs to be pursued by modifying one's position through questioning and conflict with opposing ideas. It is this idea of the truth being pursued, rather than discovered, that characterizes Socratic thought and much of our world view today. The Western notion of dialectic is somewhat Socratic in nature in that it is conceived of as an ongoing process. Although Socrates in The Apology claims to have discovered no other truth than that he knows no truth, the Socrates of Plato's other earlier dialogues is of the opinion that truth is somehow attainable through this process of elenchus

The Athenians, with the exception of Plato, thought of Socrates as a Sophist, a designation he seems to have bitterly resented. He was, however, very similar in thought to the Sophists. Like the Sophists, he was unconcerned with physical or metaphysical questions; the issue of primary importance was ethics, living a good life. He appeared to be a sophist because he seems to tear down every ethical position he's confronted with; he never offers alternatives after he's torn down other people's ideas.

Arete

He doesn't seem to be a radical skeptic, though. Scholars generally believe that the Socratic paradox is actually Socratic rather than an invention of Plato. The one positive statement that Socrates seems to have made is a definition of virtue (areté): "virtue is knowledge." If one knows the good, one will always do the good. It follows, then, that anyone who does anything wrong doesn't really know what the good is. This, for Socrates, justifies tearing down people's moral positions, for if they have the wrong ideas about virtue, morality, love, or any other ethical idea, they can't be trusted to do the right thing.

SOCRATES

Style and Methods

Style and ApproachIndividualized InstructionQuestions and AnswersPoetry and MetaphorDiscussion

Now that we have looked at the life and character of Socrates, we can turn to an examination of his particular approach in educating. What techniques did he use to facilitate learning?

Style and Approach

Socrates' attitude toward the divine carried over into his discussions as he often would pray for assistance in the argument or rely on his spiritual inspiration for guidance. In the Timaeus he suggests to Timaeus before he begins his long speech that he should duly invoke the gods. Timaeus agrees that it is the intelligent way to begin any undertaking.1 In the Republic Socrates suggests to Glaucon that they pray for success in their search for justice.2 At the conclusion of the Phaedrus Socrates offers up a prayer to the gods of this enchanted place where he has been inspired. His prayer is characteristic of his values, but Phaedrus does agree to share it with his friend.

O beloved Pan (All) and the other gods of this place, grant to me that I be made beautiful in my soul within, and may the outward be in harmony with the inner man. May I consider the wise man wealthy; and may I have as much money as a self-controlled man can bear and carry.3

Although Socrates saw himself as a catalyst or midwife, he felt it was actually the power of God which enabled the person he was talking with to improve. In the Alcibiades I Socrates suggests to Alcibiades that he answer the questions put to him and "by God's will - if we are to put any trust in my divination - you and I shall both improve."4 As Socrates leads Alcibiades on to the recognition of his need of education, he asks Alcibiades how he will proceed. Alcibiades responds that he depends on what Socrates wishes, but Socrates corrects him by saying that it depends on God's will.5 In the Theages there is a lengthy description of several incidents where Socrates counseled his friends when he received an indication from his divine sign. Socrates twice warned another Timarchus not to leave a drinking party, but the third time Timarchus slipped out unnoticed and went to commit a crime for which he was later executed. He warned the commander, Sannio, not to set out on an expedition, and later the man was condemned to death after the battle of Arginusae.6 Then Socrates explains how the spiritual power assists some in the educational process with him.

This spiritual power that attends me also exerts itself to the full in my intercourse with those who spend their time with me. To many, indeed, it is adverse, and it is not possible for these to get any good by conversing with me, and I am therefore unable to spend any time in conversing with them. And there are many with whom it does not prohibit my intercourse, yet the intercourse does them no good. But those who are assisted in their intercourse by that spiritual power are the persons whom you have noticed; for they make rapid progress there and then. And of these, again, who make progress some find the benefit both solid and enduring; while there are many who, for as long a time as they are with me, make wonderful progress, but when they are parted from me relapse, and are no different from anybody else.7

Socrates cites Aristides as an example of one who improved and then after leaving Socrates, gradually felt his new abilities slipping away. Aristides related that although he did not learn anything from Socrates, he made progress whenever he was with Socrates - even if he was just in the same house, but more when in the same room, even more when he looked at Socrates as he spoke, and most of all when he sat beside him and touched him. In conclusion, Socrates tells Theages that he will make rapid progress with him only if God wills it.8

When in the Phaedo Cebes praises Socrates for how well he handled the argument about the soul being a harmony, and expresses confidence for the next problem, Socrates warns him not to be boastful and allow negativity in; the argument is "in the hands of God."9

In the Cratylus, a tongue-in-cheek, half-humorous discussion of the origin of words and names, Socrates feels inspired, but he is not sure about the source of the inspiration.10 Later on Socrates recognizes an intuition that came to him concerning the mutability and movement of all things.11 Further on again Socrates marvels at the wisdom of what he is saying, but at this point he feels the need to examine them more closely to avoid the worst of all deceptions - self-deception.12 Thus Socrates did not rely solely on inspiration, as we find him predominantly concerned with reasoning. Yet it is fair to say that he recognized and utilized divine sources of inspiration.

An important piece of evidence which supports that Socrates relied on divine inspiration to help others is found in a fragment from Aeschines, another Socratic whose writings were almost all lost. As a student of Socrates, Aeschines can be placed on a comparable level with Plato and Xenophon as to his opportunity to observe Socrates directly. Socrates here draws his conclusions as to how he has been able to help Alcibiades.

If I thought I knew some art by which I could do good to men, I should have charged myself with great folly: but, as it is, I thought that these things came to me as a divine gift for the sake of Alcibiades. And there is nothing that calls for surprise in that.... Through the love which I felt for Alcibiades I had had the same experience as the Bacchae. For the Bacchae, when they are inspired, draw up milk and honey from the wells from which other people cannot even get water. And so I too, though I have no science with which I could help a man by instructing him in it, nevertheless felt that by being with him I could make him better through my love for him.13

Here we see also the love as the most important thing that Socrates is able to contribute.

For Socrates love and friendship were the proper contexts for the pursuit of wisdom and goodness. In Xenophon's Memoirs of Socrates he explains to Antiphon that to take money for his conversation would be like prostitution of wisdom instead of beauty. The duty of a gentleman is to help his friends become as good as they can.14 In the Theaetetus Socrates is eager to discuss, but only in an atmosphere of friendship; he is very polite to Theodorus and does not try to force him into the argument against his will.15

In the Phaedo Socrates demonstrated how he was sensitive to the mood of the group and how he could understand the problem and allay their fears. After Simmias and Cebes had presented strong arguments against the immortality of the soul, several of his listeners began to have serious doubts. Phaedo describes how Socrates handled the situation:

That he had an answer ready was perhaps to be expected; but what astonished me more about him was, first, the pleasant, gentle, and respectful manner in which he listened to the young men's criticisms, secondly, his quick sense of the effect their words had upon us, and lastly, his skill in healing us, rallying us from our defeat to turn around and join with him in the examination of the argument.16

Phaedo goes on to tell how Socrates stroked his beautiful hair and playfully suggested that they both should cut off their hair if they are not able to revive the wounded argument. Socrates knew how to relieve the tension when necessary.

In the Laches Socrates politely allows the older gentlemen to speak first,17 and later advise Laches to instruct Nicias if he is wrong, rather than abuse him.18 At the beginning of Xenophon's Symposium Callias invites Socrates and his companions to a banquet. Socrates admits that he is only an amateur compared to the sophists Callias has paid much money such as Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodicus, and others. He is about to refuse the invitation, but seeing that this would really upset Callias, he agrees to go with him.19 Socrates was quite sensitive to the feelings of others, and took them into consideration.

Xenophon's description of this banquet offers some of the best examples of Socrates' sense of humor. As they are playing the game of saying what they each pride themselves in most, Charmides claims his is his poverty. Socrates comments, "It seldom causes envy or a quarrel; and it is kept safe without necessity of a guard, and grows stronger by neglect!"20 Then when asked by Callias, Socrates declares he is most proud of being a procurer. After they laugh, he claims he could make much money in that trade.21 Xenophon recalls that Socrates often used to talk in a manner that was half joking and half serious.22

In the Euthyphro Socrates jokes with the pious man about his arguments being like the statues of Daedalus, which were said to be so alive that they would run away and could not be held in a fixed place.23 In the Euthydemus when Dionysodorus and Ctesippus were getting into a bitter argument, Socrates noticed it and began to joke with his friend Ctesippus and gradually turned the discussion toward a desire for goodness.24

Socrates also had exceptional perseverance in carrying out an investigation of any subject. After Euthyphro's attempts to define holiness are found wanting, Socrates is ready to begin the inquiry again so that he might learn what holiness really is from this man who appears to be so pious. However, Euthyphro begs off, and hurries away.25 In the Philebus Protarchus asks Socrates three times to explain a point more clearly so that he can understand it. Even then he is still confused, but Socrates does not lose patience with him, as he goes on to give another example.26

Socrates also demonstrated things by his own personal example. According to Diogenes Laertius, he once got up and left the theatre during Euripides' Auge when the following statement was made about virtue: "'Tis best to let her roam at will." He said it was ridiculous to make a fuss about a slave who could not be found while virtue was allowed to be lost.27 When he had invited some rich men over and Xanthippe was ashamed of the dinner, he told her not to worry. If they were temperate, they would put up with it; and if they were not, they need not care about them. Socrates always demonstrated his own moderation and self-control of appetites. He used to say that while other people lived to eat, he himself ate to live.28

Xenophon also comments on Socrates' behavior and lessons at banquets. Socrates used to tell the waiter of the dining-club that the meat each man contributed should be put in the common stock. This discouraged some from spending much on meat. When one man ate meat without bread, Socrates mentioned this practice as an apt description of greed. When the man began to take some bread with his meat, Socrates suggested they watch to "see whether he treats the bread as his meat or the meat as his bread." He also cautioned that mixing the dishes destroyed the chef's art and dulled the appreciation of less variety.29 In Xenophon's Symposium Socrates recommends wine in moderation to induce a more sportive mood. However, plants when they are drenched with too much water become weak and fall over; so too should men avoid the excesses of wine which cause the bodies and minds to reel, making speech much less sensible.30

After describing Socrates' control of his own passions and appetites, Xenophon summarizes the example that Socrates set.