CUR/711 DEVELOPMENTAL AND LEARNING THEORIES
1
Week 3
Gredler (2009) - Review Ch. 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, & 9
Ormrod (2008) - Review Ch. 3, 4, 7, & 11
Martinez (2010) - Review Ch. 2, 5, & 7
Assessment
· Individual Assignment - Thoery Chart Part I
Create a graphic organizer clarifying behaviorist, constructivist, and cognitive learning theories
·
· Summarize each theory
· List at least five important theorists in each category
· Depict any other information you think is important
Post your graphic organizer to the Individual and Learning Team forums by day four.
Learning Team Assignment - Theory Chart Review
Read the graphic organizers posted in the Learning Team forum by team members.
Coordinate with the team so that all organizers are reviewed.
Provide feedback on each other's organizers, including the following:
· Missing or incorrect data about each theory
· Missing or incorrect theorists
· Organizational comments
Table of Contents
1. Assignment
2. Categories
·
II. Categories
the four major groups of theories:
1. the early learning theories,
2. the learning-process theories,
3. theories of cognitive development,
4. social context theories.
1. The Early Learning Theories
The early learning theories—classical conditioning,Thorndike’s connectionism,
and Gestalt psychology—charted new, unexplored territory in developing information
about learning. In these efforts, they designed experimental models for
research and introduced basic constructs that could be studied systematically in
the laboratory or the school setting. Moreover, connectionism and Gestalt psychology were appropriate for the learning needs of society in the early 20th century.
The focus was basic skills in mathematics, reading, and writing, with advanced
courses for the 5% who were expected to pursue a college education.Thorndike’s
connectionism addressed the learning of specific items of information and Gestalt
psychology identified problem set and functional fixedness, difficulties that can
occur in learning problem-solving strategies.
Thorndike’s connectionism, classical conditioning, and a basic assumption
of Gestalt psychology also are found in current learning situations. College students
who cram for final examinations are typically focusing on stimulus–response
fragments that are facts or definitions—examples of connectionism. A very different
situation, learned helplessness, is, in part, an example of classical conditioning.
Just as dogs in the laboratory developed severe anxiety when powerful
stimuli (such as electric shock) overwhelmed their typical reactions, children
whose efforts meet with continued failure are conditioned to discontinue trying.
The lesser problem, low self-efficacy, reflects a key Gestalt assumption about
perception. Specifically, the behavioral environment, one’s perceptions, rather
than the geographical environment, the way things are, is important in understanding individual learning problems. Students who have the capabilities to succeed in a cognitively demanding course but who believe that they cannot are
examples of the Gestalt assumption that perception trumps reality.
2. The Learning-Process Theories
Skinner’s operant conditioning, Gagné’s conditions of learning, and information processing theory represent the essential activities and processes in the learning
of voluntary or self-directed responses from the behaviorist perspective, the needs
of instruction, or the cognitive perspective.Table E.1 summarizes their contributions.
Skinner’s translations of inner states into observable behaviors, and his identification
of the critical component in behavioral change—the dynamic of responses
producing reinforcement—apply to a variety of learning situations. For education,
another key concept is to avoid placing students in a set of terminal contingencies
where they may lack the skills to succeed. A classroom structure in which learners
are expected to function as a discourse community can be such a situation for low ability learners. Students who cannot participate in the construction of meaning
through dialogue are unable to be members of the classroom community (Cobb &
Bowers, 1999). Also, diverse learners from minority cultures or lower socioeconomic
groups may be shut out of environments that appear to be egalitarian because
the students lack the knowledge and skills to participate (Delpit, 1988).
Gagné’s conditions of learning contain elements of both the behaviorist and
cognitive perspectives. They are the identification of the performance that reflects
each learned capability (behavior) and the essential internal processing steps
required for acquiring each capability (cognition). For learning to be complete,
internal processing should conclude with opportunities to apply the new learning
in situations different from those introduced initially in instruction.This emphasis
on transfer is similar to Skinner’s transfer of stimulus control in which new learning
becomes independent of the cues and supports that initiated the behavior.
A unique contribution of the conditions of learning is the identification of
the different categories or varieties of learning and the prerequisites to the highest
intellectual skill, higher order rule learning or problem solving.The importance
of prerequisites is indicated in Brophy’s (2005) recognition that attribution training
for learners who are low performers must address the skills that are missing
in the student’s repertoire. That is, focusing on changing the student’s attributions
from lack of ability to lack of effort is often misguided because the student
is trying. In addition, the expansion of Gagné’s learning task analysis into cognitive
task analysis indicates the importance for training of identifying key decision
points in the activities undertaken by experts.
The first use of an artificial symbol by humans to represent an item of
information to be remembered is an early example of metacognition. Currently,
information-processing theory has identified other strategies, including comprehension
monitoring and planning, monitoring, and evaluating one’s progress
in learning.The introduction of cognitive load as an important factor in learning
indicates the complexity of learning beyond that of early humans.
Cognitive-Development Theories
The focus in the learning theories is the acquisition of some identified achievement
in relation to the content in the curriculum. In other words, some form of
mastery of course content is the intended outcome. In contrast, the focus of the
two cognitive-development theories is proficiency in some form of higher-level
thinking.For these theorists, Piaget and Vygotsky, course content serves as a vehicle
in developing higher forms of thinking.That is, learning some form of course
content is not the ultimate outcome.
Piaget defined the highest level of cognitive development as logical thinking
in which individuals reason accurately about cause–effect relationships. He
advocated student experimentation on objects and events in the real world to
develop this capability. In other words, through experimentation and the weighing
of evidence, students can develop an analytical, critical spirit. An example of
the application of this perspective is the middle-school earth science curriculum
described by O’Neill and Polman (2004) in Chapter 8.The students pose viable
research questions based on available information about a topic, collect the data,
and are required to analyze the information (rather than appealing to authority).
In this way, they develop a logical approach appropriate for problems in
mathematics, science, and other disciplines.
For Vygotsky, learning to think conceptually (which involves thinking with
networks of concepts in different subject areas) is both an outcome of cognitive
development and the set of processes responsible for the development of selfdirected
attention, categorical perception, and logical memory.Thinking in terms
Epilogue 437
of concept networks differs from simply identifying the examples of a particular
concept in which the individual’s thinking is tied to external stimuli.The higher
mental functions develop only with the shift to internal control of internally constructed
stimuli.
Vygotsky’s conception of the signs and symbols of a culture and the relationship
to thinking also speaks to the issue of the prevalence of electronic media
in contemporary daily affairs.The processing of ongoing visual images does not
enhance reflection and does not contribute to the development of higher mental
functions. The recognition of co-occurring images, from Vygotsky’s perspective,
is the definition of signalization. It is an elementary cognitive process in
which judgment is based on the recall of similar images, a process that does not
contribute to cognitive development.
Social-Context Theories
Since the introduction by Bandura of the importance of models in the social setting,
learning contexts have expanded from the home and the classroom to the
whole world, which is accessible 24/7 via electronic media.The result is a doubleedged
sword. On the one hand, new technologies have led to several changes in
both schooling and the workplace. Video conferencing has replaced the travel
required for face-to-face meetings in business and students can connect with others
in different countries.Also, working at home is feasible for some jobs, such as
a copy editor for a publishing company.These positions require individuals who
are highly skilled, motivated, and self-directed. Personal efficacy and the development
of the individual’s self-regulatory system are essential in developing the
expertise and self-direction required for such situations.
On the other hand, increased accessibility to entertaining images in the electronic
media in recent years poses two problems for education: the increased exposure
to a diversity of models, some of which illustrate negative or inappropriate
behaviors, and the decreased time in activities that can build language. Brophy (1999)
noted the need for models who exemplify enthusiasm for the subject as well as structuring
reinforcements for student insights about the subject area. An example is
placing high school students in summer internships with university professors in
their research laboratories.This practice also can enhance both student expectancy
for success in academic activities and the value placed on academic pursuits. The
importance of motivational models is supported by the 2007 survey by the World
Health Organization. Middle schools in the United States were 2 standard deviations
below the mean on school climate items. The challenge for education is to
foster deep engagement in learning while addressing established accountability
standards.
CURRENT ISSUES
In recent years, theory and research have begun to address the many complexities
inherent in the learning process. However, theory development and research
face conceptual, theoretical, and social issues in the efforts to contribute to our
438 Epilogue
understanding of learning and instruction. They are (a) the gap between
development and understanding (conceptual), (b) the gap between the reality
of many classrooms, and theory (conceptual and social), (c) the disparity among
children entering school (social), (d) the role of technology in learning, and (e) the
tension between universalistic and particularistic theories (theoretical).
The Gap Between Theory and Understanding
The rapid popularity of a theory often leads to misconceptions and misapplications.
Valsiner (1998) noted that the depth of understanding of a theory is inversely
related to its popularity. If the misconceptions are not corrected, the theory often
is questioned or discredited on the basis of inaccurate information. An early
example in the 1960s was the rush to publish so-called programmed learning
materials. On the surface, they resembled Skinner’s mode of programming instruction.
However, the developers simply left blanks in sentences from textbooks
instead of carefully designing the instructional sequence. The problems generated
by the poorly designed materials led to criticisms of operant conditioning as
a basis for developing individualized instruction.
More recently, the attempted application of the Piagetian stages of cognitive
development to the design of curriculum and the stated mandate that Vygotsky
advocated group-directed school instruction are examples. The result is
curriculum or instruction that fails to meet the potential suggested by the theory.
The Gap Between the Reality of Many Classrooms and Theory
Three factors are essential in bringing about major changes in social institutions
such as schools.They are (a) theoretical principles that identify the specific components
of the process of interest, in this case learning; (b) associated activities
and strategies required to implement the identified components; and (c) a mechanism
for disseminating and installing the specified activities and strategies.Theories
related to learning, based on particular assumptions about the process,
provide the principles and most of them also address associated essentials for
instruction. Lacking, however, is the third factor, the mechanisms for implementation.
As Bandura (2004) noted, theorists have identified the principles and the
ways they should be implemented in classrooms.However, theory does not profit
from its successes because models for implementation are lacking.
Required for successful implementation are accurate information about
theoretical principles, adequate training and support while teachers are learning
and practicing the strategies, and adequate resources (e.g., materials, instructional
and administrative support) to sustain implementation.First, however, there is no
clearinghouse for pedagogical developments intended for classroom use.Teachers
learn about new developments from a patchwork of sources, which also can
promote pedagogic fads. Sources of information for teachers include professional
publications, bulletins and newsletters from school districts and state departments
of education, and workshops. Second, professional development for teachers
occurs in varying degrees and emphases across districts and states.
Epilogue 439
Third, the accountability requirement has increased the use of published
standardized tests. Content coverage and test achievement are related and pervasive
priorities. However, items on these tests are not designed to address the
outcomes identified in learning theory. Ideally, assessment for accountability
should include open-ended items, such as explaining problems in the country at
a particular point in history to an English cousin; constructed responses for key
definitions; and demonstrating relationships among concepts. However, given
that such changes in accountability assessments are unlikely to change in the near
future, making a case for changes in instruction is extremely difficult.
The Disparity Among Children Entering School
Differences in children’s prior experiences relevant for school learning is not a
new issue in education. Socioeconomic differences, translated as preparation for
learning, were the impetus for Head Start. In addition, programs that teach basic
concepts about the nature of print and books and the nature of numbers to children
(described in prior chapters) respond to the need for particular instruction
for some children when they enter school.
Vygotsky highlighted the importance of the child’s language when he or she
enters school as the vehicle for learning.The absence of opportunities in the home
for young children to engage in dialogues with adults leads to impoverished ways
of speaking and, therefore, impoverished ways of thinking (Vygotsky, 1935/1994).
Therefore, preschools should provide rich experiences in language use between
children and adults who are the ideal form of behavior.This need is supported by
Ausubel, Novak, and Hanesian (1968), who noted that disadvantaged children
used few parts of speech that are required for thinking.That is, their speech lacked
“conjunctions, adjectives, adverbs, and qualifying phrases of clauses” (p. 218).
The Role of Technology in Learning
Bandura’s social-cognitive theory refers to models in the electronic media; however,
most theories address the learning of the individual student in interacting
with objects in the environment.Yet to be developed are learning principles that
address teacher–student interactions, student-to-student communication, and
student-to-subject-matter interactions for various uses of computer technology.
The structuring of information, the nature of questioning, the nature of informative
feedback, and the scheduling of reinforcements are among the many issues
to be addressed in relation to technology.
Complicating these issues is the potential of telecommunication exchange
projects among classrooms in different cultures to promote simplistic and sanitized
views of others (Fabos & Young, 1999). For example, in one project, computer
exchanges among students in the United States and New Zealand revealed
that the students watched the same television shows and listened to the same
music. Such exchanges may indicate the dominance of U.S. entertainment media,
but they do not foster in-depth understandings of students’ backgrounds and cultural
contexts.
440 Epilogue
A more profound problem is the dominance of the visual image as both
entertainment and a primary form of acquiring information.The pervasiveness of
this issue is indicated by the term visual literacy—a skill that involves both understanding
images and using them to express oneself. One rationale for relying on
visual images in instruction is that children learn to read pictures before learning