Conservation for a blue planet:Monitoring and controlling trade in marine species
For thousands of years people have viewed the world’s oceans as a boundless resource, providing food, minerals, a highway for transportation, a place to dump garbage and waste, and more recently, a source of power. However, over-exploitation of critical food sources, together with increasing levels of pollution, ship traffic, and exploitation of offshore mineral resources, has brought the oceans to crisis point. The centuries-old view of the seas as a limitless resource is being replaced by a new awareness of the urgent need to protect the marine environment and its wildlife.
WWF believes the 12th meeting of the CITES Conference of the Parties (CoP 12) being held in Santiago, Chile, from 3–15 November 2002 is a key opportunity for governments to take action against one factor behind the crisis in our seas – over-exploitation of marine species through unregulated international trade and pirate fishing.
WWF also believes that CoP 12 provides an opportunity for CITES to develop an important new role in regulating international trade in species regarded as commodities rather than wildlife. In particular, proposals to add toothfish (Disstostichus spp.) and two sharks (Rhincodon typus and Cetorhinus maximus) to CITES Appendix II could prove an important milestone in the evolution of CITES, bringing these commercially valuable marine fisheries under the Convention’s protection. In the case of toothfish, the precedent involved in listing a species subject to deep-ocean commercial fisheries in the high seas would certainly help to signal the “coming of age” of CITES as an international conservation instrument.
WWF urges the 160 CITES ‘Parties’ (governments) and other international and national institutions concerned with marine fisheries to support the positive role that CITES can play in reducing illegal, unreported, unregulated (IUU) fishing and ensuring the sustainable use of fish stocks and other marine species. From tiny seahorses harvested for traditional medicines to the gigantic whale shark harvested for its meat and fins, this CoP may determine whether the oceans can survive the most voracious marine predator of all — humans.
Why CITES?
CITES – the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora – has well-established processes to protect species that are traded internationally. Trade of species listed in its Appendices is strictly controlled to ensure that trade is legal and does not harm the species' survival in the wild.
Not one of the more than 30,000 species protected by CITES has become extinct as a result of trade since the Convention entered into force in 1975. Some indeed are traded commercially at very high volumes, such as queen conch (Strombus gigas; traded primarily for food) and crocodiles and alligators (traded for their skins). In addition, CITES has already proved its value in regulation of a commercial fishery through the listing of sturgeon species in Appendix II to combat overfishing and the illegal trade in caviar.
A debate has been running for several years over whether commercially fished marine species should be included in the CITES Appendices. The strongest opponents to this have frequently been nations involved in large-scale commercial fishing on the high seas, who have argued that fisheries should be managed either through the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) or through multilateral agreements for specific fisheries or regions. However, the regional nature of these agreements, or their lack of enforcement, can be important roadblocks to effective management and conservation.
Cooperation between CITES and existing organisations has proved an effective way to achieve long-term conservation results. CITES could provide support to existing national and multilateral agreements for marine fisheries and assist in combating IUU fishing. One important, and currently missing, tool that CITES could provide to assist monitoring of fish stocks and control of IUU fishing is a standardised, global process for tracking international trade in designated marine species. By restricting international trade to products from legal fisheries, CITES could also provide additional protection to nations with low-intensity community-based (artisanal) fisheries that might otherwise be destroyed by high-intensity illegal fishing.
How does CITES work?
Species may be listed on one of three Appendices, according to the level of threat they face:
· Appendix I lists species in danger of extinction. International commercial trade in these species is banned.
· Appendix II lists species not necessarily currently threatened with extinction, but which may become so unless trade is subject to strict regulation. Commercial trade in these species is allowed on the condition that specimens are legally obtained and the trade is not detrimental to the wild population.
· Appendix III lists species that are protected in at least one country, where that country has asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling the species' trade.
Proposals for marine species at CoP 12
Patagonian and Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus spp.): proposed for inclusion in Appendix II
In many ways, the case of the Patagonian toothfish demonstrates some of the most fundamental flaws in global fisheries management. A relatively recent and rapidly growing international demand for toothfish — which is marketed under various names, including Chilean sea bass and mero — has been fuelled in part by declining or collapsed fish stocks elsewhere in the world. Well-designed management measures are handicapped because they are limited to parties in a regional agreement. Finally, no international compliance measures currently exist to ensure that nations around the world do all they can to prevent illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU) fishing of this species. Listing in Appendix II of CITES would therefore be of great benefit to this commercially valuable marine species as well as to the future of global fisheries management.
The Patagonian toothfish is a slow-growing species found in the deep waters of the Southern Ocean. It can grow up to 2 metres long and reach a weight of 100 kilograms during its unusually long life span of 40–50 years. The species takes 10 years or longer to reach sexual maturity and spawns at depths greater than 1,500m. Its low reproductive rate, late age of sexual maturity, and slow growth make it extremely vulnerable to over-exploitation.
Patagonian and the smaller, faster growing Antarctic toothfish are fished in the Southern Ocean, in a fishery managed by the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), the body governing the conservation of marine resources in the Antarctic. CCAMLR has developed proactive management measures for toothfish. However, a number of nations who are not parties to CCAMLR are involved in the harvesting, landing, or trade of toothfish, so the application of these measures has been minimal outside of CCAMLR’s 24 members and seven ‘acceding states’.
Rapidly growing international demand for toothfish has fuelled high levels of IUU fishing of some stocks. This IUU fishing is the single biggest threat to the species. According to a 2001 report by TRAFFIC - the wildlife trade monitoring network, data for the past three fishing seasons indicate that while 90,429 tonnes of toothfish were caught legally, a conservative estimate of 151,771 tonnes were traded internationally. In many cases, IUU fishing vessels are registered in non-CCAMLR nations in order to avoid CCAMLR obligations.
IUU fishing has already led to the devastation of toothfish stocks in South African waters, and is a major problem elsewhere, including in Australian and French territorial waters. After stock collapse, IUU fishing has simply moved on to target new stocks. Devastation of fish stocks is also accompanied by the devastation of seabird populations, including albatrosses, as IUU fishers do not abide by conservation measures to minimise by-catch.
Inclusion of the Patagonian toothfish, and the "look alike" Antarctic toothfish, in CITES Appendix II, together with adoption of the annotation and resolution suggested to accompany the listing, would extend CCAMLR conservation and management measures to a further 130 nations. This would help ensure the future sustainability of this fishery, and also help protect seabirds from being caught as by-catch.
WWF urges the CITES Parties to support the proposal to list toothfish (Dissostichus spp.) on Appendix II, including the WWF-recommended revised Annotation and Resolution establishing the conditions under which international trade in toothfish should occur.
For additional information, see the WWF Position Statement on Toothfish, the TRAFFIC report “Patagonian toothfish: are conservation and trade measures working?” and the TRAFFIC report “Uncharted Waters: Implementation issues and potential benefits of listing toothfish in Appendix II of CITES.”
Whale shark (Rhincodon typus) and basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus): proposed for inclusion in Appendix II
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species currently identifies conservation concerns for 79 shark species. Sharks continue to suffer from high levels of unreported by-catch and growing markets for fins, meat, cartilage, and oil. Their slow growth, low birth rate, and late sexual maturity make them particularly susceptible to over-exploitation.
Since 1994, the CITES Parties have expressed increasing levels of concern about shark conservation. Various decisions and resolutions in recent years have encouraged the collection of biological and trade data, the establishment of international agreements to address shark conservation needs, and cooperation with FAO. In 1999 the FAO Committee on Fisheries agreed to an International Plan of Action for Sharks, but implementation is voluntary, and progress is slow. In the meantime, shark populations continue their steep decline.
The whale shark, largest of all fish, may live up to 100 years, growing to more than 20 metres and exceeding 30 tonnes. Increasing demand for meat in eastern Asian markets, where prices have been known to reach $US11/kg, has resulted in a growing number of legal and illegal fisheries for whale sharks. The species is wide-ranging throughout the world's warm tropical waters, and sharks may move through national waters of many nations. This means both that measures at the national level will not be sufficient to ensure management and conservation, and that declines in numbers in unfished areas may be the result of fisheries elsewhere. In addition, populations may consistently return to the same local feeding locations, making them vulnerable to targeted harvesting in these areas. International regulation of whale shark fishing is therefore critical. The whale shark has been classified as “Vulnerable” by IUCN, and although the species is protected nationally in a handful of countries, listing in CITES Appendix II offers the only established, effective means of monitoring international trade and ensuring its sustainable management.
The basking shark is the second largest marine fish, reaching lengths of up to 10 metres. Demand for basking shark fins is large and growing, with processed sets of fins bringing as much as $US330/kg on the Hong Kong market. In 1998 a single metre-high fin was on sale in a Chinese restaurant for slightly less than $US10,000; in 1999 and 2000 similar fins were seen elsewhere in China at prices exceeding $US16,600. Like the whale shark, the basking shark is classified as “Vulnerable” by IUCN and receives limited protection in a few nations. However, reported reductions in numbers of 50–90% in some areas clearly indicate the need for international conservation measures.
WWF urges the CITES Parties to support proposals to list the Whale shark (Rhincodon typus) and basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) in Appendix II; to establish a formal dialogue between CITES and FAO to progress shark conservation; and to establishment a review procedure for shark species.
For additional information, see the WWF Position Statement on Sharks, WWF Fact Sheets on the Whale Shark and Basking Shark, and “The role of CITES in the conservation and management of sharks”, prepared by IUCN and TRAFFIC and circulated to the CITES Parties as Notification 2002/42.
Seahorses (Hippocampus spp.): proposed for inclusion in Appendix II
Whether dried for use in traditional medicines, sold as curios in tourist shops, or harvested live to supply the aquarium trade, seahorses have become a valuable resource for an increasing number of countries around the world. At least 75 nations are now known to trade in seahorses, but few international conservation measures exist to ensure that the trade is sustainable. Their low reproduction rate (males produce from 5–15 offspring per pregnancy), short life-span (one – five years depending on the species), low population density, and large investment in parental care makes seahorses particularly susceptible to over-exploitation.
Topping the list of seahorse markets is the Asian market for traditional medicine. In the 1980s and early 1990s, annual consumption in Asia was estimated at 45 metric tonnes, or 16 million seahorses annually, sold whole or processed into tonics or pills. Some estimates indicate that as many as one million enter the aquarium trade each year, while an unknown number end up as dried curios in beach resorts and shell shops around the world.
Management of seahorse fisheries is currently not well developed. There is a lack of information on the biology and population dynamics of most species, and the nature of the fishery means that catches frequently go unreported. Many of the countries involved in the fishery are developing nations which lack the capacity and financial resources necessary for the development and implementation of sustainable harvest programmes, although community-based management systems are having increasing success in Viet Nam, the Philippines, and other areas. A CITES listing on Appendix II could provide these nations with support for local efforts, while proving critical to understanding and monitoring the global trade in seahorses and helping to ensure they receive adequate protection.
WWF urges the CITES Parties to support the proposal to list seahorses (Hippocampus spp.) in Appendix II.
Humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus): proposed for inclusion in Appendix II
Humphead wrasse is part of the “live reef food fish trade”: fish (mainly groupers and wrasses) that are traded live for luxury restaurant markets in Hong Kong, mainland China, Singapore, and other nations. In this trade, rare species such as the humphead wrasse command the highest prices, ranging from $US90–170/kg in Hong Kong. Unfortunately markets such as this one, in which the rarity of a species contributes to its desirability as a luxury food, can quickly lead to species depletion since demand continues to grow even as the species becomes rarer and more expensive.
Humpheads are the largest member of the wrasse family, growing to over two metres and 190 kilograms. The species lives for as long as 30 years, reaching sexual maturity at 5–7 years. One curious aspect of its life history is that the species is hermaphroditic, with a female-to-male sex change as it grows. This curiosity may also make it more vulnerable to fisheries targeting larger fish, since larger humphead wrasses are typically all males. Humpheads play an important role in the reef ecosystem as predators of the crowns-of-thorns starfish, whose occasional population explosions have resulted in massive coral destruction across Indo-Pacific reefs.