CHAPTER 8
Concept/Applied
LO 5 to 8
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Pages: 231-236
1. How does risky decision making differ from making decisions about preferences? How do people generally make each type of decision?
Making decisions about preferences involves selecting from an array of known options (for example, choosing an apartment). In this type of decision task, when the number of options is small, people generally use an additive or a weighted additive strategy. When the number of options is large, people are more likely to favor a strategy such as elimination by aspects. In all decisions of this type, people demonstrate a limited ability to process and evaluate a large number of attributes and options.
Risky decision making involves making decisions under conditions of uncertainty. In such cases, people frequently make irrational decisions that deviate from an objective assessment of the probabilities of different outcomes. Sometimes people base risky decisions on what the different outcomes are personally worth to them (subjective utility). Sometimes they estimate subjective probabilities of various outcomes, using mental (often inaccurate) shortcuts such as the representativeness heuristic and the availability heuristic. Overall, people are not as rational and systematic in their decision making as they believe themselves to be.
Factual
LO 11 and 12
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Pages: 240-243
2. Explain how scores from modern IQ tests are interpreted, and discuss the meaning of the score in terms of its reliability and validity.
Modern IQ scores are deviation IQ scores that indicate an individual’s placement within the normal distribution of IQ scores. Most modern IQ tests have the mean set at 100 points, with a standard deviation of 15 points. Scores that exceed 100 are higher than the mean, and scores that are less than 100 are lower than the mean. Approximately 68% of the population has an IQ score that falls within 1 standard deviation of the mean (between 85 and 115), and approximately 95% of the population has an IQ score that falls within 2 standard deviations of the mean (between 70 and 130).
Modern IQ tests produce reasonably consistent results when people are retested. The correlations between tests scores on separate administrations of the test typically range into the 0.90s. This means that IQ tests have a high degree of reliability (consistency over time). The validity of IQ tests (accuracy in measuring intelligence) is more questionable. Scores on IQ tests correlate highly with school performance. However, a number of researchers (such as Robert Sternberg) argue that intelligence is more than doing well in school. He suggests that current tests don’t measure two key aspects of intelligence: practical intelligence and social intelligence.
Integrative
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3. Discuss the similarities and differences between current views on the nature and assessment of intelligence and creativity.
Both are influenced to a considerable extent by experience. Both apparently are based largely on normal, conscious problem-solving processes. Both are currently thought to consist of multiple factors rather than being a single factor. The trend is toward viewing both intelligence and creativity as collections of abilities, specific to particular areas.
Intelligence is most often defined in such a way that it seems to depend on convergent thinking; creativity on divergent thinking. Regarding measurement, intelligence test items are more likely to require particular correct answers; creativity tests are more open-ended. Creativity tests are mediocre predictors of creative achievement in the real world. Intelligence tests are mediocre predictors of vocational achievement, but pretty good predictors of school achievement. Manifestations of intelligence and creativity in the real world are both subject to considerable influence by many factors other than intelligence and creativity, respectively, including situational factors, training, motivation, and personality. In addition, intelligence and creativity are somewhat related to each other. Studies like Terman’s show that very intelligent people tend to be physically and emotionally healthy. There seems to be a similar connection between these traits and creativity. On the other hand, there is some evidence of a connection between high levels of creativity and some forms of mental illness, especially mood disorders.