Chapter 8: Influence Tactics of Leaders 65
CHAPTER 8
Influence Tactics of Leaders
The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize the reader with a wide range of influence tactics that he or she may need to persuade others. A secondary purpose is to sensitize the reader to the difference between ethical and unethical influence tactics.
CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES
Influencing group members to achieve a worthwhile goal is a leader’s quintessential responsibility. To become an effective leader, a person must be aware of the specific tactics leaders use to influence others. Although this chapter focuses on influence tactics, other aspects of leadership, such as projecting charisma and coaching, are also influence processes. Influence is defined here as the ability to affect the behavior of others in a particular direction. Power is the potential or capacity to influence. (Power can also be regarded as the ability to influence others.) Influence tactics have grown in importance because so often a leader or corporate professional has to influence others without having formal authority over them.
I. A MODEL OF POWER AND INFLUENCE
The model shown in Figure 8–1 illustrates that the end results of a leader’s influence outcomes are a function of the influence tactics he or she uses. The influence tactics are in turn moderated, or affected by, the leader’s traits and behaviors and the situation.
The three possible outcomes are commitment, compliance, and resistance. Commitment represents the highest degree of success; the target of the influence attempt is enthusiastic about carrying out the request and makes it a full effort. Compliance means that the influence attempt is partially successful. The target person is apathetic (not overjoyed) and makes only a modest effort to carry out the request. Resistance is an unsuccessful influence attempt. The target person is opposed to carrying out the request and finds ways to either not comply or do a poor job.
Traits, including personality and intelligence, impact the effectiveness of influence tactics. The leader’s behaviors affect influence tactics in a variety of ways. Also, the situation, such as the organizational culture, can help decide which influence tactic will be effective. For example, in a high-technology environment, rational persuasion and expertise may be more effective than an emotional appeal.
II. DESCRIPTION AND EXPLANATION OF INFLUENCE TACTICS
Influence tactics are classified here as those that are essentially ethical and honest versus those that are essentially manipulative and devious. Several of the tactics, however, fall into a gray area.
A. Essentially Ethical and Honest Tactics
Used with tact, diplomacy, and good intent, the tactics described in this section can facilitate getting others to join you in accomplishing a worthwhile objective. These tactics vary in complexity and the time required for their development.
1. Leading by Example and Respect. A simple but effective way of influencing group members is leading by example, or leading by acting as a positive role model. Being respected facilitates leading by example.
2. Using Rational Persuasion. To implement this tactic, the leader uses logical arguments and factual evidence to convince another person that a proposal or request is workable and likely to result in goal attainment. Rational persuasion is likely to be the most effective with people who are intelligent and rational. A major moderating variable in rational persuasion is the credibility of the influence agent. A subtle factor is that credible people are perceived as having higher power.
3. Developing a Reputation as a Subject Matter Expert. Becoming a subject matter expert (SME) on a topic of importance to the organization is an effective strategy for gaining influence. Being an SME is a subset of rational persuasion.
4. Exchanging Favors and Bargaining. Offering to exchange favors if another person will help you achieve a work goal is another standard influence tactic. Give the other person as much time as feasible to accomplish the task, and also give a menu of options for different levels of assistance.
5. Legitimating a Request. A legitimate request falls into one’s scope of authority and fits organizational policy. Making legitimate requests is an effective influence tactic because most workers are willing to comply with regulations.
6. Making an Inspirational Appeal, Being Charming, and Emotional Display. To inspire others a leader must obviously make inspirational appeals. Such an appeal is reinforced by an emotional display. The influence agent will be more effective when he or she displays personal magnetism, refers to a captivating, inspiring personality with charm and charismatic-like qualities. For an emotional appeal to be effective, the influence agent must understand the values, motives, and goals of the influence target.
7. Consultation with Others. Consultation with others before making a decision is both a leadership style and an influence technique. The influence target becomes more motivated to follow the agent’s request because the target is involved in the decision-making process.
8. Forming Coalitions. A coalition is a specific arrangement of parties working together to combine their power. Coalition formation works as an influence tactic because “there is power in numbers.” The more people you get on your side, the better. The more powerful the leader, the less the need for coalition formation. Collaborative influence is one of IBM’s ten new leadership traits and behaviors.
9. Being a Team Player. Influencing others by being a good team player is an important strategy for getting work accomplished. A leader might be a team player by doing such things as pitching in during peak workloads. Being a team player is a more effective influence tactic in an organizational culture that emphasizes collaboration than one in which being tough-minded and decisive is more in vogue.
10. Practicing Hands-on Leadership. A hands-on leader is one who gets directly involved in the details and processes of operations. The hands-on approach influences subordinates to follow the beliefs, procedures, and processes of the leader.
B. Essentially Dishonest and Unethical Tactics
The tactics described in this section are less than forthright and ethical, yet they vary in intensity with respect to dishonesty. The first four would be considered unethical and devious by most people; the last three might be within the bounds of acceptable ethics.
1. Deliberate Machiavellianism. Machiavellians are people in the workplace who ruthlessly manipulate others. They regularly practice deception, bluff, and other manipulative tactics.
2. Gentle Manipulation of People and Situations. By making untrue statements or faking certain behaviors, gentle manipulators get another person to comply. A widely used manipulative approach is the bandwagon technique. A manager informs her vice president that she wants an enlarged budget for attendance at a quality seminar because “all the other companies are doing it.”
3. Undue Pressure. When rewards become bribes for compliance, and threats of punishment become severe, the target person is subjected to undue pressure or coercion.
4. Debasement. A subtle manipulative tactic is debasement, demeaning or insulting oneself to control the behavior of another person.
5. Ingratiation. Getting somebody to like you can be considered a mildly manipulative influence tactic—particularly if you do not like the other person. Ingratiation includes such basic human relations techniques as asking for something in a polite way.
6. Joking and Kidding. Good-natured kidding by the leader is especially effective when a straightforward statement might be interpreted as harsh criticism.
7. Upward Appeal. In upward appeal, the leader exerts influence on a team member by getting a person with more formal authority to carry out the influence act.
It is important to recognize that the most severe influence tactics can bring about human suffering.
III. LEADERSHIP INFLUENCE FOR ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Top-level leaders exert many of their influence attempts in the direction of bringing about changes through the entire organization, often by attempting to overhaul the organization culture. Before plunging ahead with attempts at massive cultural change, the leader needs to study the old culture and understand why it contributed to the prosperity and growth of the organization. Tactics for bringing about change yet assuring that a healthy culture is maintained include the following.
A. Serve as a role model for the desired attitudes and behaviors.
B. Impose a new approach through executive edict.
C. Establish a reward system that reinforces the culture, such as giving huge suggestion awards to promote an innovative culture.
D. Select candidates for positions at all levels whose values mesh with the values of the desired culture.
E. Sponsor training and development programs that support the desired cultural values.
IV. RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS AND SEQUENCING OF INFLUENCE TACTICS
Influence tactics have been studied here separately, but they must also be understood in relation to one another.
A. A Study of the Relative Effectiveness of Influence Tactics
Yukl and Tracey studied the relative effectiveness of influence tactics. Included in the survey were 120 managers, 526 subordinates, 543 peers, and 128 superiors, all of whom also rated the managers’ use of influence tactics. Respondents were asked which of nine influence tactics were used by the manager, and how many tactics resulted in complete commitment. Respondents also rated the managers’ effectiveness.
The most effective tactics were rational persuasion, inspirational appeal, and consultation. The least effective were pressure, coalition, and appealing to legitimate authority. Inspirational appeal, ingratiation, and pressure were used primarily in a downward direction. Personal appeal, exchange, and legitimating were used primarily in a lateral direction. The authors caution that any tactic can trigger target resistance if it is not appropriate for the situation or is applied unskillfully.
A study by Wells and Kipnis indicated that both managers and employees used strong influence tactics when they distrusted the other party—either a manager or a subordinate. The strong influence tactics studied were appeals to higher authority, assertiveness, coalition, and sanctions.
Another study showed that when group members perceived a poor relationship with their leader, the leader’s use of inspirational appeal and exchange resulted in less of helping of coworkers by members. However, the leader’s consultation tactics were positively associated with group members helping coworkers. When group members perceived their relationship with the leader as positive, exchange tactics by the leaders positively related to helping behavior.
B. The Sequencing of Influence Tactics
In general, begin with the most positive, or least abrasive, tactic. Use stronger tactics only as needed. A sensible approach is to begin with low-cost, low-risk tactics. If the outcome is important enough, the influence agent can then shift to higher cost and higher risk influence tactics.
The direction of influence tactics is also important. In general, the more position power an individual exerts over another, the less the need for being cautious in exerting influence tactics.
C. Implicit Leadership Theories and Leadership Influence
People are more likely to be influenced by leaders who match their expectation of what a leader should be. Implicit leadership theories are personal assumptions about the traits and abilities that characterize an ideal organizational leader. The assumptions are stored in memory and activated when group members interact with a leader.
Prototypes are positive characterizations of a leader, whereas antiprototypes are traits and behaviors people do not want to see in a leader. Prototypes include sensitivity, intelligence, dedication, charisma, strength, and attractiveness. Antiprototypes include tyranny and masculinity.
V. GUIDELINES FOR ACTION AND SKILL DEVELOPMENT
A study showed that managers tend to use tough follow-up tactics when subordinate’s refusal of a request related to worked expected in his or her role, and when the subordinate was perceived as malingering. Poor leader-member exchanges are also associated with tougher tactics. Managers withdrew their request when the request was seen as outside the subordinate’s role, or the request was ambiguous. The guideline here is that tougher influence tactics are more suitable when a request is within a subordinate’s role, and tougher tactics may be needed if the leader-member relationship is poor.
COMMENTS ON EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
Leadership Self-Assessment Quiz 8-1: Survey of Influence Tactics
Here is an opportunity for students to think through how frequently they use certain influence tactics. An intended byproduct of completing this questionnaire is to remind the reader of the existence of certain influence tactics that might be added to their repertoire. In this way, skill development is possible.
Leadership Self-Assessment Quiz 8-2: Measure of Ingratiating Behavior in Organizational Settings (MIBOS)
This listing of ingratiating behaviors can also be classified as political tactics. As such, the instrument might be regarded as twenty-four suggestions for forming a positive relationship with the boss. Many people at various stages of their career can benefit from heightened awareness of the importance of pleasing the boss.
Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 8-1: Ethical Influence Tactics
Role playing a situation in which the two parties are attempting to take an opposite ethical stance will require advanced interpersonal skills. Students must remember that the company representative wants to dissuade the Air Force procurement officer from being unethical, yet simultaneously he or she does not want or antagonize this valuable partner.
Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 8-2: Identifying Influence Tactics
This straightforward test helps the student review his or her understanding of influence tactics. The test is more difficult than asking students to define and give an example of the various influence tactics. Diagnostic skill is needed to answer these questions correctly.
Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 8-3: Applying Influence Tactics
Applying a leadership skill in field situations can be valuable experience. At a minimum, such practice illustrates the point that a combination of study and practice is important for leadership skill development.
COMMENTS ON DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES
1. Explain the following analogy: Influence is to leadership, as eggs are to an omelet.
Influence is as much as inseparable from leadership, as eggs are inseparable from an omelet. You cannot exercise leadership without influencing others, and you cannot have omelets without eggs.
2. Which influence tactic described in this chapter do you think would work the best for you? Why?
A student’s choice of influence tactic will frequently be a function of past experience with the tactic and his or her personality and skills. For example, knowledgeable people and expert people are likely to choose the technique of being a subject matter expert.
3. Which influence tactic do you think would work the most poorly for you? Why?
A student will similarly think that a particular tactic will not work for him or her based on experience, personality, and skills. A person who is rarely able to make others laugh, for example, might believe that joking and kidding would not work for him or her.