Chapter 1: Anatomical Terminology, Medical Imaging, Organ System Overview
I. Levels of Organization of Organisms
A. atoms (elements of periodic table)
B. molecules (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acid)
C. cells (epithelial, bone, muscle, nervous)
D. tissues (epithelial, connective, muscular)
E. organ (stomach, heart, brain, lung)
F. organ system (muscular, skeletal, digestive, nervous)
G. whole organism (each different species)
II. Anatomy - the study of the structures of an organism
A. Gross Anatomy - structures as seen by unaided eye
B. Developmental Anatomy - study of the anatomy of the developing organism
1. Embryology - fertilization to third month of fetus
C. Histology ("tissues" "to study") - structures that can be seen with the microscope such as cells and tissues
1. Cytology - study of cell structure/function
D. Systemic Anatomy - study of individual organ system
E. Regional Anatomy - study of structures in particular area
F. Pathology ("disease" "to study") - study of changes in structure due to disease/injury
III. Structure - Function Relationships
A. Anatomy - study of structure
Physiology - study of function
B. Structure determines Function
Function determines Structure
C. Charles Darwin - "Origin of the Species" (1858) - Changes in structure affect function: basis of evolution of all organisms
IV. Anatomical Terminology - The Language of Anatomy
1. Prefixes Indicating Location, Direction, and Tendency
§ Prefix Meaning Example_________________
§ Ab- from, away abnormal - away from normal
§ Ad- to, near, toward adrenal - near the kindey
§ Ante- before antepartum - before delivery of child
§ Brady- slow bradycardia - slow heart beat
§ Brev- short brevity - in a short time
§ Circum- around circumocular - around the eye
§ Co- with, together coordinate - work together
§ Con- with, together congenital - with birth
§ Contra- against contraindicated - not indicated
§ Counter- against counterirritant - against irritation
§ Dis- apart from disarticulated - taking a joint apart
§ Ect- outside ectonuclear - outside the nucleus
§ End- within endocardium - lining inner heart
§ Epi- upon, on top of epidermis - upon the skin
§ Ex- out from exhalation - breathe out
§ Hypo- under, lower hypodermic - under the skin
§ Hyper- above, higher hyperactive - higher level activity
§ Im- not immature - not mature
§ In- not incurable - not curable
§ Infra- under, below infrapatellar - below the knee
§ Peri- around pericardium - sac around the heart
§ Post- after postmortem - after death
§ Pre- before prenatal - before birth
§ Pro- before prognosis - a fore-knowing
§ Super- above, on top superciliary - above the eyebrow
§ Supra- above, on top suprapubic - above the pubic bone
§ Sym- with, together symphony - sounds played together
§ Syn- with, together synarthrosis - union of bones
§ Trans- through, across transurethral - through the urethra
2. Prefixes Indicating Number and Measurement
§ Uni- one unicycle - one wheel
§ Mono- one mononuclear - one nucleus
§ Bi- two bilateral - two sides
§ Bin- two binocular - two eyes
§ Di- two dicephalic - two heads
§ Ter- three tertiary - the third part or stage
§ Tri- three trilobar - three lobes
§ Quadr- four quadriceps - muscle w four heads
§ Tetra- four tetracylcine - four-ringed molecule
§ Poly- many polydactyly - many digits (more than 5)
§ Oligo- few oligosaccharide - few sugars linked together
§ Micro- small microscope - equipment to view small things
§ Macro- large macrophage - large eating cell
§ Mega- great/enormous megadontia - huge teeth
3. Prefixes Denoting Organs, Structures, Things
§ Acoust- sound acoustics - quality of sound
§ Aud- ear, hear audition - to hear someone
§ Abdomin/o abdomen abdominal - relating to the abdomen
§ Acr/o extremity, limbs acromegaly - abnormally large limbs
§ Blast/o early, embryonic blastocyte - embryonic type cell
§ Aden/o gland adenopathy - disease of a gland
§ Angi/o vessel angiogram - picture of a vessel
§ Arthr/o joint arthritis - inflammation of a joint
§ Bucc/o cheek buccolabial - relating to cheek and lip
§ Cardi/o heart cardiology - study of the heart
§ Corp- body corpus callosum - connecting body
§ Chondr/o cartilage chondrocyte - cartilage cell
§ Cephal/o head cephalic - relating to the head
§ Cyst/o bladder cystoscopy - view of the bladder
§ Cyt/o cell cytokinesis - cell movement
§ Dent/o tooth dental - referring to teeth
§ Dermat/o skin dermatitis - skin inflammation
§ Duoden/o duodenum duodenal - relating to the duodenum
§ Encephal/o brain encephalitis - brain inflammation
§ Gastr/o stomach gastrointestinal - stomach and intestine
§ Hepat/o liver hepatitis - liver inflammation
§ Gloss/o tongue glossopathy - tongue disease
§ Glute- buttocks gluteus minimus - small buttocks muscle
§ Laryng/o larynx laryngitis - larynx inflammation
§ My/o muscle myocardium - heart muscle
§ Nephr/o kidney nephrologist - one who studies kidneys
§ Neur/o nerve neurosurgeon - surgeon of nervous system
§ Oste/o bone osteocyte - bone cell
§ Ot/o ear otitis media - middle ear inflammation
§ Ophthalm/o eye exophthalmos - eyes bulge out
§ Path/o disease pathological - relating to disease
§ Pneumon/o lung pneumonia - condition of the lung
§ Rhin/o nose rhinoplasty - reform the nose
§ Stomat/o mouth, opening stomatitis - mouth inflammation
§ Thorac/o chest or thorax thoracocentesis - puncture of the thora
4. Suffixes Denoting Relations, Conditions, and Agents
Suffix Meaning Example____________________________
§ -ac related to cardiac - related to the heart
§ -ious related to contagious - communicable by contact
§ -ic related to pyloric - related to pyloric valve of stomach
§ -ism condition mutism - condition of being mute
§ -osis condition scoliosis - S-shaped condition of backbone
§ -tion condition constipation - constant blockage condition
§ -ist agent (a person) opthalmologist - eye doctor
§ -or agent operator
§ -er agent examiner
§ -ician agent physician
§ -centesis to puncture amniocentesis - puncture the amnion (fluid)
§ -ectomy to cut out and remove appendectomy - cut out & remove appendix
§ -ostomy to cut and form opening colostomy - opening to drain the colon
§ -otomy to cut or slice tracheotomy - cut the trachea
§ -pexy to fix or repair gastropexy - repair the stomach
§ -plasty to reform or repair rhinoplasty - reform the nose
§ -rraphy to suture, sew ateriorraphy - suture an artery
§ -scopy to view otoscope - instrument to view ear
§ -algia pain neuralgia - nerve pain
§ -cide kill or destroy germicide - substance that kills germs
§ -emia of the blood cholesterolemia - cholesterol in the blood
§ -gram writing or record electrocardiogram - record of heart action
§ -graph recording instrument electrocardiograph - records the heart
§ -itis inflammation appendicitis - appendix inflammation
§ -ology the study of ophthalmology - study of the eye
§ -oma tumor lymphoma - tumor of lymphatics
§ -orrhea flow menorrhea - flow during menstruation
§ -malacia soft osteomalacia - bone softening
§ -phasia speech dysphasia - slurred or blunted speech
§ -phobia fear arachnophobia - fear of spiders
B. Anatomical Position
1. subject stands erect
2. upper limbs placed at sides with palms forward
3. feet flat on floor in natural forward direction
C. Directional Terms (practice using them in the lab!)
1. superior (cephalic) : inferior (caudal)
2. anterior (ventral) : posterior (dorsal)
3. medial : lateral
4. ipsilateral (same side) : contralateral (opposite)
5. proximal : distal
6. superficial : deep
7. parietal : visceral
D. Planes and Sections
1. sagittal - divides into right and left parts
a. midsagittal - right down the middle
b. parasagittal - away from the midline
2. frontal (coronal) - divides anterior & posterior
3. horizontal (transverse) - divide superior & inferior
E. Body Cavities
1. Dorsal Body Cavity
a. cranial cavity (brain)
b. vertebral cavity (spinal cord)
2. Ventral Body Cavity (viscera - organs found here)
a. thoracic cavity
i. pleural cavity (space separating the parietal pleura and visceral pleura of lungs - like balloon pushed in with fist)
ii. mediastinum - all contents of thoracic cavity except the lungs (eg. heart)
b. abdominopelvic cavity
i. abdominal - stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine ii. pelvic - urinary bladder, cecum, appendix, sigmoid colon, rectum, reproductive organs
3. Other Body Cavities
a. oral cavity (mouth)
b. nasal cavity (sinuses for air passage)
c. orbital cavities (eyes)
d. middle ear cavities (in temporal bone)
e. synovial cavities (freely moveable joints)
V. Divisions of Abdominopelvic Cavity
A. Quadrants (from the umbilicus - belly button)
1. right upper quadrant (RUQ)
2. left upper quadrant (LUQ)
3. right lower quadrant (RLQ)
4. left lower quadrant (LLQ)
B. Regions (nine regions around umbilicus)
VI. Specific Terms for Various Regions
VII. Medical Imaging Techniques
A. Classic X-ray : radiography (radiograph)
1. good for dense structures (bones and tumors)
B. Computed Tomography (CT) or Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scanning
1. employs X-ray technology to create clearer image
2. tumors, aneurysms, kidney stones, gallstones, etc.
D. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
1. uses magnetic properties of molecules, not X-rays
2. presence of cancer cells, chemical disease of brain, spinal cord disorders, blood flow problems, injury after stroke, measure effects of drugs on tissues
3. used chiefly on soft tissues such as brain & heart
D. Dynamic Spatial Reconstruction (DSR)
1. employs X-ray technology to see organ action/motion
2. measures physiology of heart, lungs, vessels; can
indicate abnormality/deformity in structure; tissue damage
E. Ultrasound (US)
1. uses high frequency sound waves
2. gall stones, pelvic organs, blood flow, fetal development
F. Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
1. uses radioisotopes such as Carbon-11, Nitrogen-13
2. effects of drugs, site of molecules, cancer cells
3. very good at studying glucose absorption by neurons in the brain during certain tasks
G. Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)
1. takes X-ray picture before and after administration of contrast substance to the vessels
2. used to study vessels of the brain and heart to help prevent strokes and heart attacks
VIII. Major Organ Systems
A. There are 12 major organ systems of the body:
1. integumentary (skin)
2. skeletal (bone)
3. muscular (muscles)
4. nervous (CNS and PNS)
5. endocrine (hormones/regulation)
6. cardiovascular (heart and blood vessels)
7. lymphatic (lymph fluid)
8. respiratory (lungs)
9. digestive (stomach, intestine)
10. urinary (kidneys, bladder)
11. reproductive (male and female genitalia)
12. immune (not really organs, cells in the blood/body)
IX. Integumentary System
A. Major Components
1. skin (epidermis, dermis, etc.)
2. hair
3. sweat and oil glands
4. sensory organs and glands
B. Major Functions
1. helps to regulate body temperature
2. protects against external injury and desiccation
3. eliminates salts and urea
4. produces vitamin D
5. responds to temperature, pressure, and pain
X. Skeletal System
A. Major Components
1. bone
2. cartilages
3. tendons
4. ligaments
5. joints
B. Major Functions
1. provide protection for internal organs (skull, ribs)
2. provide support for body
3. mechanical advantage for muscular actions (levers)
4. storage of vital minerals - calcium
5. site of blood cell formation (marrow)
XI. Muscular System
A. Major Components
1. muscles of different type/function
a. striated muscle (voluntary)
b. smooth muscle (involuntary)
c. cardiac muscle (heart)
B. Major Functions
1. striated muscle
a. primarily to contract on command
b. allows voluntary motions such as walking, grasping, and moving in general, facial expressions
2. smooth muscle
a. contracts to allow involuntary motion
b. along arteries, digestive tract
3. cardiac muscle
a. contracts in rhythmic fashion involuntarily
b. propels blood through lungs and body
XII. Nervous System
A. Major Components
1. brain and spinal cord (Central Nervous System)
2. nerves and sensory organs (Peripheral N S)
B. Major Functions
1. detect changes in internal and external environment
2. respond to changes to keep body homeostatic
3. organize activities of muscles and glands
XIII. Endocrine System
A. Major Components
1. pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal glands
2. ovaries, testes, pancreas
B. Major Functions
1. maintains body homeostasis, growth, development
2. produce hormones in response to a variety of stimuli (increased sugar level, impending doom, sexual attraction, length of day)
3. hormones then act on target organ to cause change
XIV. Cardiovascular System
A. Major Components
1. heart
2. blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries)
3. blood (serum, proteins, red & white cells)
B. Major Functions
1. primarily a transport system moving blood
a. oxygen, carbon dioxide, ions (salts Na,K,Ca,Cl)
b. nutrients and waste
c. hormones and proteins
d. white blood cells and antibodies
XV. Lymphatic System
A. Major Components
1. lymph nodes and vessels
2. spleen
3. thymus
4. other scattered lymph tissue
B. Major Functions
1. location of lymphocytes involved in body immunity
2. remove pathogens and debris from blood
3. returns leaked fluid to blood vessels
XVI. Respiratory System
A. Major Components
1. nasal passages
2. pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi
3. lungs
B. Major Functions
1. remove carbon dioxide from blood
2. allow blood to uptake oxygen from environment
XVII. Digestive System
A. Major Components
1. oral cavity, esophagus
2. stomach
3. small and large intestine
4. rectum
5. other: teeth, salivary glands, liver, pancreas
B. Major Functions
1. breakdown foods into minute particles to be absorbed by the blood and delivered to body
2. remove unused foodstuff from the body as feces
XVIII. Urinary System
A. Major Components
1. kidneys
2. ureters
3. bladder
4. urethra
B. Major Functions
1. remove nitrogen-based waste molecules (urea, uric acid, ammonia) from the blood and body
2. maintain water balance and ion/acid balance of blood
XIX. Reproductive System
A. Major Components
Male: testes, scrotum, penis, and duct system for sperm
Female: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina
B. Major Functions
1. produce gametes (sperm and egg)
2. allow means for conception to occur
3. provide environment for fetal development
XIII. Immune System (Special)
A. Major Components
1. white blood cells and other special immune cells
B. Major Functions
1. identify foreign material and eliminate it