CHAPTER 9 Race, Ethnic Groups, and Racism

CHAPTER 9 Race, Ethnic Groups, and Racism

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction

I. The Meaning of Race, Ethnic Groups, and Racism

II. Extent and Origin of Races and Racism in America

III. Race, Ethnicity, and the Quality of Life

A. The Rights of Citizenship

1. The Right to Vote

2. The Rule of Law

3. Equality Before the Law

B. The Right to Equal Economic Opportunities

1. Employment

2. Income

C. The Right to Life and Happiness

VOICES: Will It Ever End?

1. Life Chances

2. Freedom from Fear

D. The Right to Dignity as a Human Being

1. The Myth of Success Around the Corner

2. The Myth of Inferiority

3. The Myth of Mongrelization

IV. Contributing Factors

INVOLVEMENT: Becoming Color Blind

A. Social Structural Factors

1. Mass Media

2. Education

3. The Economy

4. Government

B. Social Psychological Factors

1. Majority Perspectives

2. Minority Perspectives

GLOBAL COMPARISONS: Prejudice in Europe

V. What Is to Be Done?

Summary

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Following their careful consideration of Chapter 9, students should:

1. be able to discuss the meaning of the terms race, ethnic group, and racism.

2. understand the extent and origin of the problems of minorities.

3. be able to identify the ways in which the problems of minorities negatively affect the quality of life for them.

4. know the social structural and social psychological factors that contribute to the problems of minorities.

5. be able to show some ways to address the problems of minorities.

KEY TERMS

Biological characteristics (p. 292)

Disfranchise (p. 298)

Ethnic group (p. 293)

Exploitation (p. 316)

Institutional racism (p. 313)

Life chances (p. 306)

Morphological (p. 293)

Prejudice (p. 319)

Race (p. 292)

Racism (p. 293)

Stealth racism (p. 309)

SECTION SUMMARIES

The Meaning of Race, Ethnic Groups, and Racism (pp. 292-293)

We cannot use skin color to establish biological superiority, inferiority, or even race. It is, in fact, a relatively minor biological characteristic. Because there are so many shades of skin color, classifying a person as a member of one or another race on that basis is rather arbitrary. Some observers think race is a myth. Other biological characteristics by which people could be arbitrarily classified include blood type, Rh factor, tasting ability, and so forth. Nevertheless, to the extent that skin color is used as a basis for race identification, the consequences are indeed serious for the society and all its members, regardless of race.

Extent and Origin of Races and Racism in America (pp. 294-297)

It is estimated that, by the middle of the 21st century, half of the American population may be something other than non-Hispanic whites. African Americans continue to be the largest minority group, comprising 12.5 percent of the population; the American Indian population has increased considerably, tripling between 1960 and 1990; next to Asians and Pacific Islanders, people of Hispanic origin recorded the highest growth rate since 1980, and may be the largest minority group by 2020. Segregation is still the predominant pattern, although the patterns are changing. The American dream of equal opportunity in the context of freedom from discrimination is still that--a dream.

Race, Ethnicity, and the Quality of Life (pp. 297-312)

All minorities have endured similar difficulties, for being defined as "nonwhite" affects their quality of life in at least four ways: The right of citizenship includes the right to vote, to live in a land governed by laws rather than by individuals, and the right to equality before the law. The right to equal economic opportunities includes equal access to employment and income-earning prospects. The right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness includes the notion of life chances and the freedom from fear. The fourth right involves one's dignity as a human being. This last right is frequently undermined by certain myths, such as "success is just around the corner," the myth of inferiority, and the myth of mongrelization. The text mentions the phenomenon of stealth racism, which involves hidden or subtle acts of prejudice and discrimination, acts that may only be apparent to the victim. The most recent attempt to argue for innate inferiority involves the work of Hernnstein and Murray (The Bell Curve), and their work has been the subject of continued criticism from other scientists. There is evidence that contradicts the argument of genetic superiority.

Contributing Factors (pp. 313-324)

The term institutional racism refers to established policies and practices of social institutions that tend to perpetuate racial discrimination. Institutional racism virtually guarantees that certain minorities will be shortchanged by those in power. Historically, discrimination has been perpetuated in the realms of the mass media, education, the economy, and the government. Social psychological factors include majority perspectives that involve the fallacy of the appeal to prejudice and minority perspectives that involve the members of these groups accepting their low position rather than struggling against it. Although public attitudes appear to gradually reflect declining prejudice, Jeffrey Hadden points to the "new American dilemma." In brief, while many Americans have come to realize inequities and injustices of the past, and to "know better," they nevertheless fail to implement these new attitudes in concrete ways. Many individuals remain reluctant to back up personal convictions with public action. The fight for all humankind must continue within schools, churches, legislatures, industry, and the mass media.

What Is to Be Done? (pp. 325-326)

Minority groups themselves have launched an attack on the forces that discriminate against them to the detriment of their desired quality of life. The result has been intergroup conflict as minorities strive to alter values, attitudes, ideologies, and social structural arrangements. Furthermore, attitudes and ideologies can be changed through education, minorities can continue to mobilize for political action, equal educational opportunities must be guaranteed to all minorities, legislation must be continually introduced, and institutional racism must continue to be opposed.

LECTURE/DISCUSSION TOPICS

1. One interesting vehicle for highlighting discrimination as a topic for class discussion is to encourage students to think critically about how discrimination takes place. Richard A. Zeller's article, "On Teaching About Discrimination" (Teaching Sociology, January, 1988: 61-66) provides a number of helpful suggestions for sensitizing your students to the dynamics of discrimination. This article may also be useful for your considerations of sexual inequality and discrimination (Chapter 9).

2. The idea that race is socially constructed is widely accepted within social science disciplines, but relating this concept to students can present a serious challenge since students tend to view their world as an objective reality rather than a subjective entity that involves interpretation and constructed meaning. Brian K. Obach has offered a number of interesting suggestions for demonstrating the social construction of race in his article of the same title: “Demonstrating the Social Construction of Race” (Teaching Sociology, July, 1999: 252-57).

3. It is particularly difficult to teach many white students about privileges and advantages of their membership in a dominant cultural group. Once white students recognize their advantages, they have to acknowledge that institutionalized inequality not only exists, but favors them. Dan J. Pence and J. Arthur Fields have presented what they regard as a successful approach for achieving this realization in the classroom: “Teaching About Race and Ethnicity: Trying to Uncover White Privilege for a White Audience” (Teaching Sociology, April, 1999: 150-158).

4. Most students are familiar with how racial prejudice and stereotypes are often cast in the form of jokes or off-color humor. Have them write down jokes that they have heard which contain some ethnic or racial element. The students can read the jokes to the class or you can collect them and read them. Analyze the jokes for their consistent themes and their stereotyping elements. Use jokes involving a wide range of racial and ethnic groups. Make sure that you collect jokes from minority students about white ethnic groups. Also, Chandler Davidson presents an interesting idea for using ethnic jokes as a teaching device: "Ethnic Jokes: An Introduction to Race and Nationality" (Teaching Sociology, July, 1987: 196-202).

5. The concept of ethnocentrism is introduced in sociology courses to sensitize students to the ways in which their perceptions of social life are shaped by the fact that they are "insiders" to their own society and "outsiders" to others. Kim D. Schopmeyer and Bradley J. Fisher's article, "Insiders and Outsiders: Exploring Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativity in Sociology Courses" (Teaching Sociology, April, 1993: 148-53) will be helpful to you in your in-class discussions involving ethnocentrism. Another interesting and potentially helpful reference is Phyllis Puffer's article, "Reducing Ethnocentrism: A Cross-Cultural Experience for Sociology Classes" (Teaching Sociology, 22, January, 1994: 40-46); Puffer describes her experiences in taking her students on a field trip to a fundamentalist African American Baptist religious service.

6. African Americans and the members of other minorities are obtaining higher levels of education. Furthermore, it is a fact that greater numbers of educated blacks have moved into high-paying professional and managerial occupations. Despite these forward strides in terms of employment-based discrimination, the numerical gains are not indicative of equal participation in the labor market. An interesting discussion can be orchestrated surrounding this issue. Sharon M. Collins has written an article entitled, "The Marginalization of Black Executives" (Social Problems, October, 1989: 317-31), that will assist you in preparing for such a discussion. Similar observations can be made in your subsequent discussion of sexual discrimination, in reference to women in high-paying careers: Such advances by relatively small numbers of women do not reflect improvements across the board, and we are far from having achieved "equal pay for equal worth."

7. Marisa Alicea and Barbara Kessel describe an interesting simulation exercise ("The Socially Awkward Question: A Simulation Exercise for Exploring Ethnic and Racial Labels," Teaching Sociology, 25, January, 1997: 65-71) in which students are asked to guess each other's cultural or ethnic/racial identity. The exercise is, in fact, quite complex, hence the very brief description provided here. If this sounds like something you would like to take the time to orchestrate, Alicea and Kessel's article is worth reading.

CLASS ACTIVITIES

1. If possible, conduct a field trip to some type of historical museum or exhibit that focuses on multiculturalism, ethnic identity, or transnationalism. Edith W. King has outlined a strategy for using museums in teaching about race and ethnic relations: "Using Museums for More Effective Teaching of Ethnic Relations" (Teaching Sociology, April, 1992: 114-120).

2. Have your students select one of the minority groups described in the chapter and read a novel, autobiography, or biography that will allow them to gain an understanding of the group from the perspective of a member of that group. Then, have them write a review of this book. In completing the review, students are asked to apply two of the theoretical perspectives, as well as related concepts, that best explain the experiences of the person about whom they are reading. They should also explain the historical context in which the person is writing to make linkages between the context and the experiences and perceptions of the individual. One reference that may assist you in coordinating this activity is Charlotte Fitzgerald's article, "Exploring Race in the Classroom: Guidelines for Selecting the 'Right' Novel" (Teaching Sociology, 20, July, 1992: 244-247).

3. Have your students observe various television programs to see how minorities are portrayed. Students can work in pairs and either watch the same programs and then compare their findings, or watch different shows to compare similarities and differences. For example, they can select a comedy, a drama, or a soap opera. Finally, they can draw some conclusions about whether the characters are portrayed in a positive, negative, or neutral fashion, whether the roles they play are realistic when compared in American society, and the extent to which the programs enhance or deter greater understanding of the minority group.

4. It can be enlightening and also disturbing for students to confront some of their own prejudices. One way to foster this is to have the class complete the Bogardus Social Distance Scale or some equivalent. Collect the responses and summarize them for your students. Then, encourage them to express why they would or would not want to marry a person of a different race or ethnic origin, or to have that person as a neighbor or a friend. Marietta Morrissey's article, "Exploring Social Distance in Race and Ethnic Relations Courses" (Teaching Sociology, 20, April, 1992: 121-124) may be helpful to you in reference to this activity.

STUDENT ACTIVITIES

Are students racist? In this involvement activity, your task is to measure the extent of racism on campus. First, develop a prejudice or social distance scale. Word each question so that the option refers to someone of another race.

Strongly agree (SA) Mildly disagree (MD)

Mildly agree (MA) Strongly disagree (SD)

Neutral (N)

1. Would you accept a black/white as a(an)

a. citizen? e. adopted child?

SA MA N MD SD SA MA N MD SD

b. coworker? f. lover?

SA MA N MD SD SA MA N MD SD

c. neighbor? g. marriage partner?

SA MA N MD SD SA MA N MD SD

d. close friend?

SA MA N MD SD

Also include a number of independent variables that might explain why some students are more or less racist than others--education level of parents, gender, political affiliation, and so on.

Choose a sample of 100 students using the campus directory in the social problems class. Distribute your questionnaire.

Score the questionnaire according to the following scheme:

SA = 1

MA = 2

N = 3

MD = 4

SD = 5

The lowest racism score would be 7; the highest possible score would be 35. Construct some simple 2-by-2 tables such as the one below to explain the variation in student racism. Possibly make your findings available to the campus student paper, minority-group organizations, and so forth.

Parents' education

Low High

┌───────┬────────┐

High │ │ │

Racism Score ├───────┼────────┤

Low │ │ │

└───────┴────────┘

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. What do social scientists mean by "race"?

2. What does Jefferson Fish mean when he observes that "race is a myth"?

3. Discuss the extent and origin of America's race problem.

4. Discuss the issue of segregation and how the patterns of segregation may be changing.

5. How does the race problem affect minorities' rights of citizenship?

6. Support the existence of institutional racism by citing examples given in the chapter or your own personal experiences.

7. Do you feel that the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision in the famous Brown v. The Board of Education of Topeka has really helped African Americans achieve equal education?