4. the Literature of the Revolution and the Restoration Period (1642 88)

BRITISH LITERATURE (Part Two)

4. The Literature of the Revolution and the Restoration Period (1642–88)

The social climate of the period and the struggle[1] between the king and the Puritans are reflected in the literature of the 17th century. The Puritans had little interest in science and art and Oliver Cromwell banned theatre in 1642.

The king’s supporters’ poetry can be described as metaphysical. It is complicated, the authors wrote about things that cannot be seen or touched – love, religion, God, death, nature. They did not form a group, they were called “metaphysical” later by Samuel Johnson and became popular thanks to Romantic writers.

JOHN DONNE (1572–1631) wrote sonnets (Songs and Sonnets) and religious poetry (Divine Poems, Holy Sonnets), used metaphors, contrasts and ambiguous words. He did not publish his poems, only sermons[2]. He also coined[3] the phrase “to whom the bell tolls[4]”.

JOHN MILTON (1608–74, not a metaphysical poet) is one of the most important figures of English literary history. He was a pamphleteer and essayist and he stood on the Puritans’ side. After the restoration of the Stuart monarchy, he was imprisoned and after he was released he wrote his best work, Paradise Lost. It is an epic poem about the struggle between God and Satan and about the fall of Man. Milton also wrote a sequel to this work – Paradise Regained about Christ’s victory over Satan.

JOHN BUNYAN (1628–88) was a preacher[5] and the king’s critic; when in prison, he wrote The Pilgrim’s Progress – a dream vision about Christian, a pilgrim who wanders from the City of Destruction to the Celestial City. On his way, he meets a lot of obstacles[6] which test his faith[7] and strength. The book is an allegory of life of a Christian person.

JOHN DRYDEN (1631–1700) is probably the most important playwright of the period (All for Love). His satirical poetry was also successful (Absolom and Achitophel).

5. Enlightenment[8] and Classicism in English Literature (1689–1760)

The shape of literature changed dramatically during the period of Enlightenment. It is sometimes called the Age of Reason – during the period, natural sciences strengthened[9] their position, capitalism flourished[10] and education spread among lower classes. Journalism was also quickly developing and SAMUEL JOHNSON published the first English Dictionary. The art of the Baroque made space[11] for Classicism.

Personal lyrical poetry fell out of favour[12] and was substituted by rational, ancient style imitating poetry. Many poems were written for satirical and humorous purposes and form was considered superior to content. Heroic couplet was one of the most popular verses.

ALEXANDER POPE (1688–1744) is the author of the satirical poem The Rape of the Lock. It tells a story of Belinda whose lock[13] of hair is cut by the Baron. Pope expresses here how a minor incident can cause a storm.

The drama of the period is represented by tragedies, heroic plays and sentimental comedies (cynical comedies about good manners).

By the beginning of the 18th century, the novel had finally developed. DANIEL DEFOE (1660–1731) wrote the notoriously known Robinson Crusoe[14] – a popular story of a castaway[15] on a deserted island who befriends a savage[16] whom he names Friday. Defoe also wrote a sequel, The Further Adventures of Robinson Crusoe.

The poor savage who fled[17], but had stopped, though he saw both his enemies fallen and killed, as he thought, yet was frighted with the fire and noise of my piece[18], that he stood stock-still, and neither came forward or went backward, though he seemed rather inclined to fly still, than to come on. I halloed again to him, and made signs to come forward, which he easily understood, and came a little way; then stopped again, and then a little further, and stopped again, and I could then perceive that he stood trembling, as if he had been taken prisoner, and had just been to be killed as his two enemies were. I beckoned him again to come to me, and gave him all the signs of encouragement[19] that I could think of; and he came nearer and nearer, kneeling down every ten or twelve steps, in token[20] of acknowledgement for my saving his life. I smiled at him, and looked pleasantly, and beckoned to him to come still nearer; at length he came close to me, and then he kneeled down again, kissed the ground, and laid his head upon the ground, and taking me by the foot, set my foot upon his head; this, it seems, was in token of swearing to be my slave for ever. I took him up, and made much of him, and encouraged him all I could.

In a little time I began to speak to him, and teach him to speak to me; and, first, I made him know his name should be Friday, which was the day I saved his life: I called him so for the memory of the time.

JONATHAN SWIFT (1667–1745) is famous for writing Gulliver’s Travels – Gulliver undertakes[21] four travels to different places – the land of Lilliputians, the giant island of Brobdingnag, the flying island of Laputa and the horse land of Houyhnhnms. The work sharply satirises the English society of the early 18th century. SAMUEL RICHARDSON (1689–1761) wrote Pamela and Clarissa, epistolary novels[22], the latter[23] being one of the longest novels written in English (over 980,000 words). HENRY FIELDING (1707–1754) is the author of Tom Jones, one of the first books to criticise class differences.

6. The Period of Romanticism (1760–1837)

The second half of the 18th century marked the end of traditional society. Industrial revolution started, people began to move to cities and new problems arose[24]. The period of Romanticism brought radical changes to literature. As a lot of artists were dissatisfied with the sterile nature of life bound[25] by Classicist values (e.g. reason), they sought for[26] spontaneity elsewhere and they often found it outside the city – in the nature. Sensitive and intimate poetry returned, various forms emerged or returned – ode, song forms, ballads, Spenserian stanza. The writers found inspiration in old myths, legends, old tales and other cultures.

The most important precursors[27] of Romanticism were WILLIAM BLAKE (1757–1827) and ROBERT BURNS (1759–96). Blake was not very popular in his times, he was too mystical. He also illustrated his poems. He wrote Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience. These two collections show two contrary states of human soul describing one particular thing.

Robert Burns was a poet of the nature. He lived in Scotland and is one of the most favourite Scottish writers. He wrote the lyrics to “Auld Lang Syne”, a song that is usually sung after New Year’s midnight. His poems were published as Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect.

WILLIAM WORDSWORTH (1770–1850) and SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE (1772–1834) represent high[37] Romanticism in English literature and they are also known as the Lakeland Poets. Together they published Lyrical Ballads, in whose preface[38] they summed up their poetic programme – they focus on the reader’s aesthetic experience, poetry should be sensitive and written in a language that is comprehensible[39] to laymen[40]. Coleridge wrote “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”, a ballad-like epic poem about a sailor who shoots an albatross, for which he is punished by imprisonment on the sea. He is also the author of “Kubla Khan” and “Christabel”.

The Shelley Group consisted of late romantic and radical poets. Lord GEORGE GORDON BYRON (1788–1824) wrote “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage”, a long poem about a man travelling around foreign countries. PERCY BYSHE SHELLEY (1792–1822) is famous for his lyrical verse drama Prometheus Unbound and “The Revolt of Islam”. JOHN KEATS (1795–1821) is another important figure of the generation.

As for prose, JANE AUSTEN’s (1775–1817) novel of manners Pride and Prejudice is one of the most famous works written during the Romanticism period. It is about Elizabeth Bennet, who sees her four sisters getting married and is having troubles with her own relationship with Mr Darcy.

Historical novels became popular and Sir WALTER SCOTT (1771–1832) is considered one of the best romantic prose writers. His work comprises[41] novels such as Waverley, Rob Roy or Ivanhoe. Gothic novels emerged thanks to the writers’ interest in the mysterious, horror, mythology and depressing environments. Characters are often found being tested by immoral evil. Among the best are The Mysteries of Udolpho by ANNE RADCLIFFE, The Monk by MATTHEW GREGORY LEWIS, Frankenstein[42] by MARY SHELLEY or Melmoth the Wanderer by CHARLES ROBERT MATURIN.

7. Realism and Victorian Literature

In the Victorian era, the literature became realistic as it dealt with problems of life in modern society. The authors started depicting[43] life as it was and often criticised social injustice. The period is the golden age of the English novel and many authors are still widely read. Later, realism culminated in naturalism, which is a movement founded by Émile Zola in France and which described the human nature in accordance with[44] biological theories. Such writings are full of crime, prostitution and alcoholism. It is also worth noting that 1859 saw the release of The Origin of Species by CHARLES DARWIN.

From poetry, ALFRED TENNYSON (1809–92) is worth mentioning.

WILLIAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY (1811–63) is the author of Vanity Fair, The Book of Snobs and The Luck of Barry Lyndon (a novel about an unimportant Irish nobleman getting into high society and causing pain in the world he does not belong to).

CHARLES DICKENS (1812–70) is probably the best-known Victorian author. His novels are praised for realism and social criticism. He wrote about poor people and described problems the society had to deal with (orphanages[45], poverty, illiteracy, crime). His most famous works are The Pickwick Papers, The Adventures of Oliver Twist (about an orphan getting into a thieves’ company), A Christmas Carol (a novella about a greedy old man), David Copperfield, Little Dorrit or Great Expectations.

CHARLOTTE (1816–55), EMILY (1818–48) and ANNE (1820–49) BRONTË are well-known female writers of the period. Their most famous writings are Charlotte’s Jane Eyre and Anne’s Wuthering Heights, a story of a gypsy orphan called Heathcliff falling in love with his step-sister Catherine. THOMAS HARDY (1840–1928) was another Victorian realist. His important works are Far from the Madding Crowd or Tess of d’Urbervilles. OSCAR WILDE (1854–1900) was an Irish novelist and playwright, most famous for his The Picture of Dorian Gray.

The period also saw the rise of popular genres (adventure and detective stories) and children’s literature. ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON (1850–94) is famous for Treasure Island (about pirates led by Long John Silver sailing to a deserted island to find their buried treasure, narrated[46] by a teenager called Jim Hawkins) and Jekyll & Hyde about a man having a dual personality, a good and a bad one. Sir ARTHUR CONAN DOYLE (1859–1930) wrote about the character of Sherlock Holmes, a detective famous for his incredible intelligence and ways of solving crimes. Doyle wrote four novels (e.g. The Hound of the Baskervilles) and many short stories about Holmes and his loyal assistant, Dr. Watson, who is usually the narrator. His fans loved the stories so much that Doyle even resurrected the character after killing him. The Lost World is another of Doyle’s well-known works, being about an expedition looking for the dinosaurs in South America. RUDYARD KIPLING (1865–1936) wrote both poetry and prose and is famous for his Jungle Book, a collection of stories partly following a boy called Mowgli raised in the jungle. Kipling was the first British author to win the Nobel Prize for literature.[47] HERBERT GEORGE WELLS (1866–1946) was a pioneer of the sci-fi genre and his novels The Time Machine and The Invisible Man became bestsellers.