1 SHIPBUILDING AND OFFSHORE INDUSTRY

  1. KEY CONCEPTS:

SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY

  1. Long history from the earliest beginnings of mankind
  2. Very traditional and conservative
  3. Slow introduction of change
  4. Basic approach is similar over the years
  5. Change from wood to iron to steel
  6. Change from oars to sail to steam with paddlewheel to propeller to diesel
  7. Factors impacting shipbuilding (compared to automobile and aircraft industry)

=Portability of the product - able to pick it up anywhere in the world

=Use in world trade - product travels all over the world

=Flags of convenience

=Foreign labor costs/conditions

=World trade growth

=National goals (policies)

=Relatively low labor skills required for both shipbuilding and ship operation

=Labor intensive with easily transferred shipbuilding skills and contribution to balance of payments makes it an attractive industry for developing countries

  1. Relatively low investment cost.
  2. Shipbuilding Industry made up of many segments (SEE FIG 1)
  3. Company Types:
  4. Depends on where you are in supply chain. A pump manufacturer is a part supplier to a shipbuilder, but to the casting company the Pump Manufacturer is an "OEM". So from the point of view of a shipbuilder or boatbuilder
  5. Original Equipment Manufacturer OEM
  6. Shipbuilder - Ships
  7. Boatbuilder - Boats
  8. Supplier
  9. Engine Manufacturer
  10. Propeller Manufacturer
  11. Crane Manufacturer
  12. Pump Manufacturer …Etc.

SHIP TYPES

  1. Ship Types Classified by industry segment and use (SEE FIG 1)
  2. Ship Systems conveniently grouped into:
  3. Structure
  4. Propulsion Machinery
  5. Electric Plant
  6. Command & Communication
  7. Auxiliaries
  8. Outfit
  9. Naval Architect's job to integrate the systems - Systems Engineering in shipbuilding
  10. Structural component names carry over from wooden ships
  11. Many outfit component names also carried over from early ships

OFFSHORE INDUSTRY

  1. Offshore oil industry was a natural migration from land.
  2. Originally in shallow water, bays, swamps and close offshore coast lines.
  3. Started in U.S. West Coast, California, in 1897 and by 1900 there were many wharfs or wooden piers stretching out into the Pacific Ocean with drilling rigs on the ends. But it was the Gulf of Mexico where the industry and technology developed. / Moved to lake in Venezuela.
  4. Construction of offshore bottom supported rigs was by land rig builders rather than shipyards.
  5. Drill ships have been built by shipbuilders as have a number of semi-submersible rigs. However, all of the bottom mounted rigs have been constructed by companies from the oil construction industry.
  6. There are many types of platforms, but they can be classed into:

Bottom Mounted / - Fixed structure - / Steel
Concrete
Jack-up
Floating - / Self propelled /Dynamically positioned
Moored - / Traditional cables & anchors
Tension leg
  1. Offshore technology development benefited from North Sea Oil field discovery.
  2. Offshore activities consist of Exploration, Drilling and Production. Different platforms are used for different activities.
  3. Drilling/Production Platforms can be of steel or concrete construction
  4. Concrete construction is usually performed in large man dug basins (holes) near the shoreline and the platforms are launched by flooding the basin, removing the earth between the basin and the sea and then towing the platform out to sea. If another platform is to be built the land is filled in again, the basin drained and construction starts. The top levels of concrete platforms are often of steel.
  5. Steel platforms are built in fabricators yards. It may simply be a level land site.
  6. The platform bases are usually built up from large cylindrical tubes and large diameter pipe. The platform bases are transported to the offshore site by barge. The launch from the barge looks simple but it is quite complicated. Especially as the platform must right itself and sink to the bottom at a precise location.
  7. The upper decks of the platforms are usually built separate from the bases, sometimes by completely separate companies. They are again, barged to the offshore site and lifted onto the installed platform base by very large (6,000 ton) floating cranes.
  8. Builders of the steel bases and upper decks are not usually equipped as well a the typical shipyard. They make do with less.
  9. Self propelled drilling rigs are usually built by shipyards
  10. Some U.S. shipyards (Litton and Avondale) built jack up drilling rigs but they did not do so profitably.

OWNERS
CHARTERS
SHIP BUILDERS
WORK BOAT BUILDERS
PLEASURE BOAT BUILDERS
RIG BUILDERS
OCEAN STUCTURES MANUFACTURERS
MACHINERY MANUFACTURERS: / ENGINES
PROPELLERS
CONTROLS
GENERATORS
PUMPS
STEERING GEARS, ETC.
EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS: / LIFEBOATS
RAMPS
FURNITURE
WINDOWS
DOORS
LIGHTING, ETC.
SHIP REPAIRERS
SHIP SCRAPPERS
CLASS REGISTERS: / ABS, LLOYDS,DET NORSKE VERITAS
REGULATORS: / USCG, BRITISH DOT
RAW MATERIAL SUPPLIERS: / STRUCTURAL STEEL
STRUCTURAL ALUMINUM
PIPING
ELECTRIC CABLE
INSULATION
PAINT
COMPOSITES
BOAT DEALERS
SHIP BROKERS
MARINE INSURERS

FIGURE 1 – Marine Organizations

  1. SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY

It is not possible to say who invented the boat or ship. Archeologists have determined that there were boats over 12,000 years ago. As such they have been the means of providing a platform from which to ford a river or to fish for countless generations. Boats were developed where there was a need for them and were almost invariably built for basic utilitarian requirements.

All the early communities of man were located on the banks of rivers or on the coastline. There is evidence in early cave drawings, paintings and even models showing early use of water for transport and fishing. People quickly learned that water transportation was easy and cheap (a fact that many in the U.S. seem to have forgotten). Two initial approaches were developed, namely:

  1. The dugout tree trunk in which the builder had little control of the maximum size.
  2. Craft built from buoyant material, such as trees, reads and bamboo, which were lashed together, and where size was decided by the builders experience on what would hold together in the seas.

The development of the ship has been gradual (evolutionary) rather than revolutionary. The initial step-discovery that some materials floated on water-was probably discovered by chance. Although the dugout tree with outriggers for stability, was a significant development, logs and rushes bound together, was the first step into larger boats. The next development was light framework covered by animal skins. As primitive wood working tools developed, so did the construction of the ship. Planking replaced skins and boats grew into ships.

It is known that many nations have been influential in the evolution of the ship and shipbuilding. Table I gives a brief chronology of the countries involved and the sequence of shipbuilding development. The needs that fostered the development were the transportation of people and cargo, fishing, exploration and war.

Early shipbuilding development paralleled the development of civilization and the growth of trade between countries separated by the sea. It is uncertain whether the Babylonians learned shipbuilding from the Chinese, or the other way around, but it is known that the Babylonians influenced the Phoenicians, the pioneer shipwrights of the Mediterranean. Although its origins are not so clear, the northern center for shipbuilding developed in the Baltic region about the same time as the Phoenician development. Through exploration, warfare and then trade the two centers became one. The Venetian’s carried on the development of the shipbuilding process and, through their influence, Portugal and then Spain, developed their shipbuilding industries.

French shipbuilding began to flourish in the early 17th century. France developed the theory of naval architecture and was so far advanced of other maritime nations, at the time, that even English shipbuilding was completely under French influence. This was mainly accomplished by copying capture French ships. The publishing of books on naval architecture and shipbuilding commenced around 1740 by the French. The first drawings to be used in shipbuilding were introduced about the same time. Prior to that ships were built without any drawings relying on the skill of the master shipwright and sometimes ship models.

Their shallow rivers and bays restricted the development of large shipbuilding in Holland. France and Britain (England and Scotland merged their parliaments in 1707) had access to deeper water and therefore their size of ships constantly increased.

Shipbuilding on the North American continent could be claimed to have started when the Indians built large canoes. However, U.S. shipbuilding really commenced during colonial days. Many fine ships were built for the Royal Navy. After independence, the U.S. achievements in sailing ships were significant. Unfortunately, the twilight of the sailing ship was brought on by the industrial revolution in Europe and the resulting development of the steamship.

The largest wooden ships were less than 200 feet in length. This was considered the structural limit for them. (The recently built wooden hull MCM’s are 225 feet in length and are the largest wooden ships built in the U.S.)

Iron was first used as reinforcement for details, such as beam knees, in wooden ships and eventually for the complete framing structure with the shell and decks still wood planking. The first complete iron ship, the VULCAN, was built in 1819 on the Clyde in Scotland. However, iron did not replace wood in ocean going ships due to the magnetic compass deviation of iron hulls. Fortunately, in 1838, Sir George Airy developed the method to correct for the deviation and the door was opened for ocean going iron ships.

The first iron ships were Brunel’s GREAT BRITAIN and the East India Company’s warship, NEMISIS. The Royal Navy built a considerable number of iron hulled warships but experience with them was unsatisfactory due to the damage caused by shrapnel as well as the difficulty of repairing resulting jagged shell holes. Meanwhile, the use of iron for merchant ships increased rapidly. Although the clipper ship IRONSIDE, built in 1838 and the LORD OF THE ISLES, built in 1853, were completely of iron, most ships were being built as composite ships with iron framing and wood planking.

Thick iron plates had been used armor on the French and British floating batteries in the war with Russia with some success. Experiments after the war with wood backed armor iron plating indicated that it would stop all existing shells. The British then design and built the WARRIOR in 1862, which was iron hulled with wood backed armor iron plating.

The building of the 680 foot GREAT EASTERN in 1858, by Scott Russell was the climax of iron shipbuilding.

Mild steel started to replace iron in 1877 and the steel manufacturing process was so well established that Lloyds Register of Shipping rules included testing of steel at that time. Steel quickly replaced iron by 1880 because of its greater strength and easier working. It has remained the best material for shipbuilding. It’s only challengers are aluminum and fiberglass and these are only acceptable for special applications.

When steel was first used it followed the iron ship joining method of riveting. The way the ship was constructed was not really different to that for a wooden and then iron ship. The keel would be laid first. Then the stem bar and the stern frame would be erected. Next the frames and deck beams would be install and held in place by ribbands and shores. The shell and deck planking/plating would be attached to the framing and everything nailed/riveted together.

TABLE 1 - BRIEF CHRONOLOGY OF SHIPBUILDING TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

The civilizations and countries which have been linked to the development of shipbuilding technology are:

Crete / 10000 to 4000 BC / Mediterranean seagoing for trade
Egypt / 5000 to 2100 BC / Nile river warships
Egypt / 2100 to 600 BC / Mediterranean seagoing warships
Phoenicia / 1500 to 331 BC / Mediterranean seagoing for trade
Carthage / 800 to 241 BC / Mediterranean, Europe and Africa for trade
Greece / 700 to 146 BC / Mediterranean trade and warships
Rome / 270 BC to 420 AD / Mediterranean, Europe and Africa warships
Venice / 420 to 1500 AD / Mediterranean and Europe trade with warships for protection
Genoa / 640 to 1500 AD / Same as Venice
Vikings / 900 BC to 1066 AD / Ships for exploration and war
England / 811 to 1850 AD / Wooden ships for war and trade
Hanse / 1241 to 1660 AD / Ships for trade
Spain / 1500 to 1600 AD / Ships for exploration
France / 1500 to 1900 AD / Ships for war
USA / 1776 to 1875 AD / Sailing ships and first clipper ships
Britain / 1838 to 1950 AD / Iron and steel hulled steamships
Britain / 1920 / First all welded ship
USA / 1916 to 1919 AD / World War I emergency fleet
USA / 1940 to 1945 AD / World War II emergency fleet
Germany / 1945 to 1955 AD / Diesel motor ships
Denmark / 1945 to 1960 AD / Diesel motor ships
Japan / 1958 to Present / Development of large shipbuilding
Korea / 1973 to Present / National program to become world’s biggest shipbuilding country.

It was welding which allowed the way ships were built to change. However, this did not happen overnight. Welding was first used for ships in the 1914-18 World War, but the first all welded ship was not built until 1920. Even this achievement was slow to be followed and it took the second World War to really promote full use of welding in shipbuilding. Up to this time ships were still built by erecting individual small parts. Welding allowed the pre-fabrication of structure into assemblies, which were then erected on the building berth, and by the end of the war the approach of structural assemblies was fully developed.

Pre-outfitting, the installation of outfit items such as structural fittings and pipe, was introduced in the mid 1950’s.

The achievement of the emergency fleet construction in both world wars, by the U.S. must be recognized, especially as much of the new techniques using welding were developed by them during the second world war.

The growth of shipping, in the period between 1960 and 1975, for both bulk dry cargo and oil fostered the development of new shipbuilding methods and large ships. First Scandinavia and then Japan emerged as the world shipbuilding technology leaders. Germany held the spotlight for a brief period but was never the world leader. Korea has grown into an equal, in deadweight tonnage built, and formidable competitor to Japan. However, it has done so using shipbuilding technology developed by other countries. It is not yet considered a shipbuilding technology leader.

From the earliest shipbuilding, it was necessary to float the boat, craft or ship once it was built. Early launching consisted of placing logs under the boat to "roll" it into the water (Vikings). There is the gruesome story (no reference available) that the Egyptians used the bodies of slaves to form the launching lubricant and that is why ships used to be christened with red wine and not champagne. The Egyptians are also reported to have launched Cleopatra’s barge sideways. Most launchings of large ships were end launching, although there are many areas of the world, including the U.S., where side launching is still the preferred approach. It is known that the Venetians constructed ships in dry-docks and all the British three decker wooden warships were built in dry-docks. The Japanese built their largest World War II battleships in dry-docks. However, the first use of dry-docks for constructing large commercial ships was started by Burmeister & Wain in Copenhagen in 1959. This was followed by Gotaverken who built a new "green field" or perhaps one should say "solid rock" shipyard at Arendal, which had two building docks but the ships were extruded out of the building hall into the dock on rollers and tracks. All of the new shipyards developed after this time had building dry-docks, except for Litton’s new shipyard in Pascagoula who used a level land building approach and a floating dry-dock with removable wing walls on one side for launching the ships. Existing shipyards such as Maryland Shipbuilding & Dry-dock, NORSHIPCO and Avondale and all developed a floating dry-dock launching approach.

Along with the development of shipbuilding technology has been the parallel development of the workers involved. First their were only shipwrights, riggers and sailmakers. Then loftsmen, iron workers, platers, riveters and boilermakers were needed. Riveters were replaced by welders. Outfitting trades developed to cover joiner work, sheet metal and painting while machinery trades included machinists, and pipe fitters. In some countries the specialization of trades was carried to extremes and the outcome was competition damaging demarcation strikes.

Although the U.S. leads the world in warship, including submarine, technology, apart from the emergency shipbuilding programs, the U.S. has not been in a consistent commercial shipbuilding technology lead position since the demise of the sailing ship. There are many reasons for this, some of which will be discussed in the next part on "Factors Impacting Shipbuilding."